Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauvalle, Fabaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

Reject, score: 16 (Go to the risk assessment (Australia))
High risk, score: 24 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific))

Other Latin names:  Mimosa invisa Mart., nom. illeg.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: giant sensitive plant, nila grass

Fijian: co gadrogadro, wa ngandrongandro levu, wa ngandrongandro ni wa ngalelevu, wagadrogadro levu

Filipino: makahiang lalake

French: grande sensitive, sensitive géante

Kwara‘ae: kwalo fai

Maori (Cook Islands): pikika‘a papa‘ā

Other: singbiguin sasa

Palauan: mechiuaiu

Pohnpeian: limemeihr laud

Samoan: la‘au fefe palagi, vao fefe pālagi, vao fefe pālagi

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "An erect, climbing, ascending or prostrate biennial or perennial shrub that often forms a dense thicket, the root system strong, often woody at the decumbent base; stems conspicuously angular throughout the length, up to 2 m tall with many randomly scattered recurved spines or thorns 3 to 6 mm long; leaves bipinnate, 10-20 cm long, moderately sensitive to the touch; pinnae four to nine pairs; leaflets 12-30 pairs, sessile, opposite, lanceolate, acute, 6-12 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; inflorescence a head, one to three in the axils of leaves, on stalks 1 cm long, hairy, about 12 mm in diameter; corolla united at least at the base (gamopetalous), pale pink; stamens twice as many as the petals; fruit a pod, spiny, three- to four-seeded, borne in clusters, linear, flat, 10-35 mm long, splitting transversely into one-seeded sections which separate at grooves or seams (sutures); seeds flat, ovate, 2 to 2.5 mm long, light brown.  It may be distinguished by its angular stems with recurved thorns or spines and by its stamens which are twice the number of the petals"  (Holm et al., 1977; p. 328). Can be easily distinguished from M. pudica, as M. [diplotricha] is larger and is only slightly sensitive to touch. "A spineless form is occasionally found, but is suspected of reverting to the spiny form"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 17).

Habitat/ecology:  "A major weed in pastures, plantations and roadsides and can also be serious in crops.  It grows best where fertility, soil and air humidity and light are all high and dies away in prolonged dry seasons"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 17). "When the plant dies and dries up it is a serious fire hazard" (Holm et al., 1977; p. 331).

Forms a dense ground cover and thickets, preventing reproduction of other species.  A wildland fire hazard when dry.  Prickly nature makes travel difficult. In Fiji, "forming dense, tangled masses up to 1.5 m high in cultivated fields and pastures and on plantations"  (Smith, 1985; pp. 62-63). In New Guinea, "a weed of roadsides, pastures and coconut plantations, but also useful as a cover crop" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 118). In New Caledonia, "elle s'est en effet montrée envahissante, formant souvent en bord de route et parfois dans les pâturages des fourrés difficilement pénétrables à cause des longues tiges épineuses enchevêtrées" (MacKee, 1994; p. 78). "La Chambre d'Agriculture l'introduisit malgré l'avis contraire d'un "practicien consommé" (L. Devillers). "Elle s'est en effet montrée envahissante, formant souvent en bord de route et parfois dans les pâturages des fourrés difficilement pénétrables" (Gargominy et al., 1996; p. 381).

Propagation:  "Seed pods float and are spread by water.  Pods are also spread when attached to fur, clothing and mud on vehicles."  (Smith, 2002; pp. 34-35). Many seed have delayed germination (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 118). "Very young seedlings a few weeks old can produce viable seeds and some will germinate immediately.  Some seeds, however, remain in the soil for years before germinating" (Holm et al., 1977; p. 328).

Native range:  Brazil.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (pp. 5, 13)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Stone, Benjamin C. (1970)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 93)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 5) Specimen collected: BMW 5808 (BISH, BRI)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 155076) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 593288) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 593371) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (2000) (voucher ID: BISH 687697) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa diplotricha L.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 93)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 155077) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 660425) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 34)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 593605) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 15)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. (2002) (p. 64) Not located in this survey.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 21)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 511173) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 660314) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 93)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 62-53) Voucher cited: DA 8945
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 62-53) Vouchers cited: DA 9720, Greenwood 838A, DA 4044, DA L.15628, Greenwood 838, DA 4045 (var. invisa); DA 9563 (var. inermis)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1955) (voucher ID: BISH 14448) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1955) (voucher ID: BISH 14449) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1944) (voucher ID: BISH 155107) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 155) Voucher cited: Fosberg & Florence 62639
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 493042) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643434) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 660315) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Space, Jim (2004) Subject to eradication. Present status unknown.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 34)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 99)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 381)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 78-79) Vouchers cited: MacDaniels 2278, Blanchon 788, MacKee 12503, MacKee 38154, Baumann & Guillaumin 10531; var. inermis Adelbert.; voucher cited: MacKee 38930
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 664394) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5) Voucher specimen collected: Flynn 6683
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 8) Subject of an eradication program.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 10, 88)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 93)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 10, 85)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 26) Voucher cited: Lorence 8206 (PTBG)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1996) (voucher ID: BISH 649687) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1996) (voucher ID: BISH 689748) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 10, 81)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 155074) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 10, 81)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 10, 81)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 118)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 7)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 26) Voucher cited: Parham 9010
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 7)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 83872) Taxon name on voucher: Mimosa invisa
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 92)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna (Horne) Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005) Subject of an eradication program.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (pp. 34-35)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Australian Biological Resources Study (2007)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 67, 78)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Indonesia Indonesia	Irian Jaya (West Papua) (Indonesia) (western New Guinea Island)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Pallawatta, Nirmalie/Reaser, Jamie K./Gutierrez, Alixis T./eds. (2003) (p. 50)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 67, 78)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 330-331)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 120)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)

Comments:  A very invasive species wherever introduced. On U.S. and State of Hawai‘i noxious weed lists; a declared noxious weed in Fiji and Australia (Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia) (Smith, 2002; pp. 34-35).

Reported to be present on Kosrae but not seen there.

Several small patches present on Guam and subject to an eradication program.

Recently introduced to Niue. Subject of an eradication program (see Niue report).

Control: 

Physical: Hand control is difficult due to spines. "Controlled by chipping or cultivation. Only temporarily suppressed by slashing" (Swarbrick, 1997; pp. 27-28).

Chemical: "Not susceptible to: 1) soil fumigants and short-term residual herbicides, although temporarily controlled with atrazine, diuron and hexazinone at standard to high rates. Susceptible to: Translocated herbicides including sodium arsenite, 2,4-D plus atrazine, fluroxypyr and probably glyphosate at standard rates". (Swarbrick, 1997; pp. 27-28).

Biological: Heteropsylla spinulosa has given good control of the weed in Australian pastures, but has proved ineffective in other crop situations (Swarbrick, 1997; pp. 27-28).

Biological control agents were reportedly introduced to Yap and Palau, but it is not known if they have become established. If present, they seem to be having little effect.

"Ten months after release at Palikir, Pohnpei, H. spinulosa became abundant on M. invisa and subsequently killed many plants. Many psyllids were transferred to M. invisa in other areas" (Waterhouse, 1994; pp. 136-145).

See also Julien (1992; p. 73), Waterhouse and Norris (1987; p. 454) and Waterhouse (1994; pp. 136-145).

Additional information:  Fact sheet from the Department of Natural Resources, Queensland, Australia. (PDF format)
Fact sheet from Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service.

Additional online information about Mimosa diplotricha is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Mimosa diplotricha may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Australian Biological Resources Study. 2007. Flora of Australia Online. Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1944. Voucher specimen #BISH 155107 (Donald, D.A. 838A).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 155074 (Fosberg, F.R. 32503).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 155076 (Fosberg, F.R. 31916).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 155077 (Fosberg, F.R. 31289).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1955. Voucher specimen #BISH 14448 (Koroivaibau, D. 9720).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1955. Voucher specimen #BISH 14449 (Walker, C. 9563).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 660425 (Fosberg, F.R. 50534).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 83872 (Whistler, W.A. W 276).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 660314 (Fosberg, F.R. 58527).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 664394 (Mackee, H.S. 38154).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 493042 (Florence, J. 3106).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 593288 (Herbst, D.R. 6719).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 593371 (Herbst, D.R. 6735).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 593605 (Herbst, D.R. 6856).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 660315 (Fosberg, F.R. 64550).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1987. Voucher specimen #BISH 511173 (Krauss, N. 1891a).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643434 (Florence 11485).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1996. Voucher specimen #BISH 649687 (Rinehart, A.F. LR26197).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1996. Voucher specimen #BISH 689748 (Singeo, Y. LR 26?602).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 2000. Voucher specimen #BISH 687697 (Waterhouse, B.M. BMW5808).

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. 1977. The world’s worst weeds: distribution and biology. East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii. 609 pp.

ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre. 2005. International Legume Database & Information Service. Online searchable database.

Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. 2002. Invasive/weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. In: Invasive species and their management. Micronesica Suppl. 6:61-65.

Julien, M. H. (ed.). 1992. Biological control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds (third edition). CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 186 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Palau. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 40 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Pohnpei. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 21 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Mueller-Dombois, Dieter/Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1998. Vegetation of the tropical Pacific Islands. New York, Springer-Verlag. 733 pp.

Mune, T. L./Parham, J. W. 1967. The declared noxious weeds of Fiji and their control. Third edition. Department of Agriculture, Fiji. Bulletin No. 48. 87 pp.

Orapa, Warea. 2005. Warea Orapa, Weed Mangement Officer, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, pers. com. (Trip Report, Wallis and Futuna Islands, 8 to 22 May, 2004).

Pallawatta, Nirmalie/Reaser, Jamie K./Gutierrez, Alixis T./eds. 2003. Invasive alien species in south-southeast Asia: national reports and directory of resources. Global Invasive Species Programme. 111 pp.

Parsons, W. T./Cuthbertson, E. G. 1992. Noxious weeds of Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne/Sydney. 692 pp.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

Smith, Nicholas M. 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide. Environment Centre NT, Inc. 112 pp.

Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

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