Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv., Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Reject, score: 7 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Panicum melinus Trin.; Panicum minutiflora (Beauv.) Rasp.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: Brazilian stink grass, efwatakala grass, melinis, molasses grass, stink grass, wynne grass

French: herbe à miel, herbe à molasse, herbe molasse, herbe molasses, mélinis

Rapa Nui: mauku piro

Spanish: chopín, pasto de gordura, pasto hediondo, pasto miel

Tongan: puakatau

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Branching perennial [grass], the culms to 90 cm long, ascending; foliage viscid (sticky), fragrant, with odor like molasses; blades up to nearly 1 ft. long, often reddish, the ligule a row of hairs; panicles 10-20 cm long, slender, purplish when young; spikelets less than 2.5 mm long; sterile lemmas awned, the awn 12 mm long or less" (Stone, 1970; p. 200).

"Herbacée pérenne en touffe dense, atteignant 1 à 2 m de hauteur, reconnaissable à ses tiges et feuilles abondamment poilues et collantes à forte odeur d’huile, et ses inflorescences dressées rousses ou rougêatres" (Meyer, 2008; p. 20).

Habitat/ecology:  "This spreading, perennial mat grass smothers everything around it. Once established, it forms monotypic stands from rooted runners. It is considered a good forage grass and therefore is not a candidate for biological control. It is adapted to fire, and the dense mats are generally only partly consumed. Regeneration from the remaining portions is rapid, and colony expansion into adjacent burned areas generally follows. It is found from sea level to 1,500 m in dry and mesic environments" in Hawai‘i (Smith, 1985; p. 195), to 2000 m in French Polynesia.  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized and common in primarily dry to mesic, disturbed, usually open areas, 120-1,220 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1562). "A serious pest in dryer environments because of sprawling growth and fire hazard in dry seasons"  (Motooka et al., 2003). 

"Espèce pionnière, colonisant les zones ouvertes et incendiées (il s’agit d’une plante pyrophile ou « pyrophyte », c’est-à-dire tolérante et adaptée aux incendies), elle n’est relativement pas consommée par les animaux (Cronk & Fuller, 1995)" (Meyer, 2008; p. 20).  In New Caledonia, "occupe en peuplements denses monospécifiques de grandes étendues de terrain. Peu commun aux Loyauté mais a été récolté à Tiga" (MacKee, 1994; p. 60).

Propagation:  The seeds are dispersed by wind.

Native range:  Africa; introduced to many locations.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 495534) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced	Pickard, J. (1984) (p. 205)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 22) "Introduced, probably relatively recently, as a fodder grass". Voucher cited: J. Pickard 3531 (NSW)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 12) "Introduced, probably relatively recently, as a fodder grass". Voucher cited: W.R. Sykes NI 547 (CHR)
Chile (Rapa Nui Island) Rapa Nui (Easter) Island	Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2008) (pp. 20, 29) "Lors de cette mission, nous avons observé des tapis denses monospécifiques sur la majeure partie de l’île (excepté sur le sommet de Maunga Terevaka), notamment autour de Rano Kau, Rano Aroi et Rano Raraku où l’espèce menace directement les sites archéologiques. Il s’agit selon notre expérience de l’invasion la plus sévère et la plus spectaculaire du mélinis dans une île du Pacifique" (Meyer, 2008; p. 20-21).
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 10)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 342) Vouchers cited: DA 14349, DA 8318, DA 3525, DA 3526, DA 3615, DA 3617, DA 3659, DA 8009, DA 9170, DA 10139
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 31713) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 601874) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 1000693) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 554197) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 102)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 339) Vouchers cited: Cartier 143, Cartier 243
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 102)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 339) Voucher cited: Fosberg 61265
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491721) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 558030) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 582489) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Niau Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 642460) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643773) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 644107) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 200-201)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 49)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 95) "Potential invader".
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1562)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1562)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1562)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1562)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1562)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1562)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1562)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 60)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Tiga	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 60)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 100) "Fernlands"
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 381) Abondante, surtout sur schistes dans le Sud; occupe en peuplements denses monospécifiques de grandes étendues de terrain.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 60) Voucher cited: MacKee 12716
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (pp. 244, 246) Voucher cited: CHR 168746
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 53)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 5) Voucher: Flynn 6711 (PTBG)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 12)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 49)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 16)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3075) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora Beauv.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3140) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora Beauv.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 90)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 7) Rare.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 100) Vouchers cited: Soakai 244, Soakai 700
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 56) Uncommon. Voucher cited: Yuncker 16229
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 125541) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1960) (voucher ID: BISH 125542) Taxon name on voucher: Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 7)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005) Only known to be present on Wallis.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (pp. 12, 27) Localement naturalisée en bordure de piste et en zone à toafa près de la station fourragère expérimentale de Hihifo ainsi qu’au sommet du mont Lulu en bordure de route en zone à toafa.
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves/Jourdan, Hervé/Malau, Atoloto (2008) (p. 9)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107) Fernlands

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 233)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 233)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Comoros Comoro Islands	Comoro Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Envahissant"

Comments:  Because of its oil content, this grass can be a serious fire hazard. A serious invader in Hawai‘i, French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna (Wagner et al., 1999, p. 1562; Meyer, 2000, p. 107).

Introduced into Guam, but not widely established (Stone, 1970; p. 200).

Control: 

Chemical: "Sensitive to glyphosate. HAVO staff reported control with foliar application of glyphosate at 1% product in water (Chris Zimmer, HAVO)" (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:
Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
Fact sheet from the Government of Queensland, Australia. (PDF format).

Additional online information about Melinis minutiflora is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Melinis minutiflora as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Melinis minutiflora may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

Other Latin names:  Panicum melinus Trin.; Panicum minutiflora (Beauv.) Rasp.

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1981. Voucher specimen #BNM3075(Timberlake, J. 3075).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1981. Voucher specimen #BNM3140(Timberlake, J. 3140).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 125541 (Yuncker, T.G. 16229).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1960. Voucher specimen #BISH 125542 (Hotta, M. 5151).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 31713 (Qoro, I. 14349).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491721 (Florence, J. 3276).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 558030 (Florence, J. 3193).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 554197 (Florence, J. 6891).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 495534 (Whistler, W.A. 5729).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 582489 (Gagne; collector's voucher number unknown).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 601874 (J.Florence 9500).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000693 (W.L.Wagner 6167).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 642460 (Florence 10079).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643773 (Florence 11408).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 644107 (Florence 11200).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. 2001. Plant invaders. Earthscan Publications, Ltd., London. 241 pp.

Délégation à l'Environnement/Délégation à Recherche. 2001. Les plantes envahissantes en Polynésie Française. French Polynesia. 2 p. folder.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lawesson, J. E. 1990. Alien plants in the Galapagos Islands: a summary. Monogr. Sys. Bot. Missouri Bot. Garden 32:15-20.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2008. Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques) [Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 62 pp. .

Meyer, Jean-Yves/Jourdan, Hervé/Malau, Atoloto. 2008. Recent incursions of invasive animal and plant species in the small and remote archipelago of Wallis and Futuna (South Pacific): "La maison brûle mais nous regardons ailleurs". In: Aliens 27: 8-9.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Orapa, Warea. 2005. Warea Orapa, Weed Mangement Officer, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, pers. com. (Trip Report, Wallis and Futuna Islands, 8 to 22 May, 2004).

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Pickard, J. 1984. Exotic plants on Lord Howe Island: Distribution in space and time, 1853-1981. J. of Biogeography 11:181-208.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Smith, Clifford W. 1985. Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai‘i's Native Biota. In: Stone, Charles P. and Scott, J. Michael, eds. Hawai‘i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and Management. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Manoa.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. (In press).

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

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U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2009. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.