Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Melinis minutiflora


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 18


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments

Melinis minutiflora P. Beauv. Family - Poaceae. Common Names(s) - molasses grass. Synonym(s) - Melinis tenuinervis Stapf; Panicum melinis Trin.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y= 1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

n

1

Total score:

18

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)Not highly domesticated

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Melinis minutiflora or molasses grass (gordura, melado), so named for its characteristic sweet odor and the gummy exudations that make its hairy leaves sticky, occurs naturally in two disjunct areas of tropical Africa. The western one extends in an arc from central Angola to Cameroun, while another to the east includes the lower slopes and adjacent areas of the Ruwenzori Range and Mount Kenya

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17.

2.02

(1)Melinis minutiflora or molasses grass (gordura, melado), so named for its characteristic sweet odor and the gummy exudations that make its hairy leaves sticky, occurs naturally in two disjunct areas of tropical Africa. The western one extends in an arc from central Angola to Cameroun, while another to the east includes the lower slopes and adjacent areas of the Ruwenzori Range and Mount Kenya

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17.

2.03

(1)It is found from sea level to 1,500 m in dry and mesic environments" in Hawai‘i to 2000 m in French Polynesia. [elevation range >1000 m; exhibiting environmental versatility] (2)Moisture: Native or naturalised in areas with annual rainfall between about 750 mm and 2,500 mm, and mostly from about 1,000-2,000 mm. Relatively drought-hardy over a dry season of four to five months. Does not tolerate waterlogging or flooding. Temperature: Largely found between 800 and 2,200 m asl in the tropics and subtropics, in areas with average annual temperatures from 18-21 (-25)ºC and mean temperature of the coldest month between 6 and 15ºC. Higher growth rate at 30ºC than at 20ºC. Foliage is "burnt" by frost, and repeated heavy frost kills the plant.

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17. (2)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (3)Duke, J.A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops - Melinis minutiflora. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Melinis_minutiflora.html

2.04

(1)Melinis minutiflora or molasses grass (gordura, melado), so named for its characteristic sweet odor and the gummy exudations that make its hairy leaves sticky, occurs naturally in two disjunct areas of tropical Africa. The western one extends in an arc from central Angola to Cameroun, while another to the east includes the lower slopes and adjacent areas of the Ruwenzori Range and Mount Kenya

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17.

2.05

(1)Melinus minutiflora is a spreading perennial mat grass originating from Africa. Distinguished by its sticky, strong smelling foliage, it was widely introduced to tropical countries as a fodder grass and soon became naturalised.

(1)Global Invasive Species Database. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. http://issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1310&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

3.01

(1)Melinus minutiflora is a spreading perennial mat grass originating from Africa. Distinguished by its sticky, strong smelling foliage, it was widely introduced to tropical countries as a fodder grass and soon became naturalised. (2)The worn and eroded soils of the abandoned coffee lands of the Paraiba Valley, between Rio and Sao Paulo, are almost taken over by this self-sowing grass, which tends to form a thick and impenetrable mat that snuffs out all competition. It seems to thrive best in disturbed areas and on thin soils, especially in the more temperate "coffee climates."

(1)Global Invasive Species Database. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. http://issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1310&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (2)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17.

3.02

(1)At first it was carefully seeded in beds of ashes with the first maize crop in new forest clearings, but it quickly became a volunteer, invading abandoned cafetales, road cuts, railway embankments and even pastures dominated by native grasses. Continuing forest destruction, together with man-set dry-season fires and assiduous roguing of weedy woody growth is encouraging its expansion. [a disturbance weed with negative environmental impacts. See 3.04]

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17.

3.03

(1)It is considered a "good" forage grass for livestock [38]

(1)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25].

3.04

(1)Melinis minutiflora is a serious threat to plant biodiversity in the Brazilian Cerrado.The consequences of this exotic species for herbaceous communities have been previously shown (Berardi 1994; Pivello et al. 1999a), but here we found that it is also having strong negative effects on woody plant recruitment. Plots invaded by M. minutiflora had fewer than half the number of seedlings at the end of the experiment, relative to plots with native ground cover. This reduction is attributable to lower seedling survival in the second and third years of the experiment, rather than lower germination or emergence. (2)The change in dominance from Schizachyrium in unburned areas to Melinis in burned areas is important because Melinis is potentially much more damaging to native species. Fires fueled by Melinis bum with greater intensity and spread much more rapidly than fires fueled by Schizachyrium (National Park Service 1989). Moreover, unlike Schizachyrium, Melinis can spread vegetatively by rhizomes as well as by seed; it forms dense mats capable of overgrowing and smothering native species in vine-like fashion...Invasion by Schizachyrium condensatum alone is apparently sufficient to initiate a cycle in which long-lived, relatively diverse Metrosideros polymorpha woodland is converted to a grassland dominated by highly flammable Melinis minutiflora. Some native species, including the candidate endangered species Pittosporum terminalioides, may be driven to extinction as a consequence. (3)The disappearanceo f C. boydiae may be due to the dense growth of alien plant species that now occupies many lower elevation stream courses. Species such as Ageratina adenophora, Deparia petersenii, Brachiaria mutica, and Melinis minutiflora are now dominant species in low elevation habitats where formerly C. boydiae occurred (4)In Hawaii, a single grass-fueled fire can kill most native trees and shrubs. S. condensatum recovers rapidly, however, and the alien grass Melinis minutiflora also invades the burned area...The now familiar Melinis minutiflora also invades disturbed areas within the moist tropical zone near Cairns, Australia. In this region, cyclones frequently destroy intact native forest, thereby producing enough fuel to carry fires. Native grasses colonize the burned sites but now are being replaced by Melinis. The flammability and large litter mass of Melinis supports a grass/fire cycle that arrests succession at the grass stage (152). (5)Impacts: Molasses grass negatively impacts native plant species and fire regimes where it occurs in Hawaii and South America. It is considered one of the 3 most invasive grasses in the Hawaiian seasonal submontane zone [21] and one of the 10 most invasive species in Hawaii [39]...South America: In the Cerrado of Brazil, molasses grass is known to cause "large" reductions in the establishment of the gallery forest pioneer cecropia (Cecropia pachystachya) tree and other trees and shrubs [19]. In the Reserva Ecológica do Roncador, Brazil, molasses grass may reduce plant biodiversity [30]. Molasses grass is invading grasslands of the Venezuelan savannas and displacing native grasses [3,4]. Molasses grass is able to displace the native grass crinkle-awn (Trachypogon plumosus) in areas with "favorable" water and soil nutrient supplies, but crinkle-awn resists invasion by molasses grass in drier, infertile sites [4].

(1)Hoffmann, W.A. and M. Haridasan. 2008. The invasive grass, Melinis minutiflora, inhibits tree regeneration in a Neotropical savanna. Austral Ecology 33: 29–36 (2)Hughes, F./Vitousek, P.M./Tunison, J.T. 1991. Alien Grass Invasion and Fire In the Seasonal Submontane Zone of Hawai'i. Ecology 72(2): 743-747. (3)Medeiros, A. C./Hobdy, R. W./Wagner, W. H. 1993. Notes on the Rediscovery, Status, and Ecology of the Very Rare Hawaiian Fern Christella boydiae (Thelypteridaceae). American Fern Journal 83(3): 86-89. (4)D'Antonio, C.M./Vitousek, P.M. 1992. Biological Invasions by Exotic Grasses,

3.05

(1)Melinis repens listed as "agricultural weed, casual alien, cultivation escape, environmental weed, naturalised, weed" (2)Rattail grass, Sporobolus africanus, and Natal redtop, Rhynchelytrum repens [syn. Melinis repens]: These grasses are abundant on leeward Haleakala at 3,000-6,000 ft (915-1830 m) as well as in pastures of lower Kipahulu. Currently, these two grass species make up much of the alien grass cover of western Kaupo Gap. They produce sufficient combustible material to carry wildfires once feral goats are controlled. Fire would enormously retard recovery of native shrubs and herbs. However, the threat of these grasses is considerably less than that presented by molasses grass.

(1)Randall, R. 2007. Global Compendium of Weeds - Melinis repens [Online Database]. http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/melinis_repens/ [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (2)Loope, L.L./Nagata, R.J/Medeiros, A.C. 1992. Alien Plants in Haleakala National Park. Pp. 551-576 in Stone, C.P., Smith, C.W. & Tunison, J.T. (eds.). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawai`i: Management and Research. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit & University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI.

4.01

(1)No spines, thorns or burrs

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

4.02

(1)Alellopathy can also play an important role for the success of invasive species (Callaway & Ridenour 2004). Extracts of M. minutiflora include propionic acid, butyric acid and 1,8-cineole (Prates et al. 1998), all of which have been shown to reduce germination and/or seedling growth (Janovicek et al. 1997; Koitabashi et al. 1997; Chaves et al. 2001). Unfortunately, our data are insufficient to determine the relative importance of competition and allelopathy for the effects observed here. (2)Melinis minutiflora establishes quickly from seed, developing into a competitive mat, and dominating other grasses initially. Combines well with legumes under appropriate management. Can be transient, and should not be the only species sown. Strong ability to suppress annual weeds. Once established, if unmanaged, it forms monospecific stands. [potentially allelopathic]

(1)Hoffmann, W.A. and M. Haridasan. 2008. The invasive grass, Melinis minutiflora, inhibits tree regeneration in a Neotropical savanna. Austral Ecology 33: 29–36 (2)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

4.03

(1)Not parasitic

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

4.04

(1)Melinus minutiflora is a spreading perennial mat grass originating from Africa. Distinguished by its sticky, strong smelling foliage, it was widely introduced to tropical countries as a fodder grass and soon became naturalised. (2)Molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora), an introduced mat-forming species, spread rapidly inside the exclosure and showed no sign of dying out or retreating. Goats exert some control over this species...Once established, some introduced species (e.g., Melinis minutiflora), are favored by elimination of goats and may severely inhibit recovery of native species (3)Molasses grass is the basis for much of the modern beef cattle industry of Minas Gerais and Goias; it covers patches of soil on the steep open sides of the Sugar Loaf and other granitic domes around Guanabara Bay

(1)Global Invasive Species Database. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. http://issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1310&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (2)Scowcroft, P.G./Hobdy, R. 1987. Recovery of Goat-Damaged Vegetation in an Insular Tropical Montane Forest. Biotropica 19(3): 208-215. (3)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17. (4)Dansereau, P. 1950. Ecological Problems of Southeastern Brazil. The Scientific Monthly 71(2): 71-84.

4.05

(1)Melinus minutiflora is a spreading perennial mat grass originating from Africa. Distinguished by its sticky, strong smelling foliage, it was widely introduced to tropical countries as a fodder grass and soon became naturalised. (2)Molassesgrass (Melinis minutiflora), an introduced mat-forming species, spread rapidly inside the exclosure and showed no sign of dying out or retreating. Goats exert some control over this species...Once established, some introduced species (e.g., Melinis minutiflora), are favored by elimination of goats and may severely inhibit recovery of native species

(1)Global Invasive Species Database. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. http://issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1310&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (2)Scowcroft, P.G./Hobdy, R. 1987. Recovery of Goat-Damaged Vegetation in an Insular Tropical Montane Forest. Biotropica 19(3): 208-215.

4.06

(1)Generally little affected by insects or disease. However, the following fungi have been reported: Claviceps sp., Corticium solani, Fusarium graminearum, F. sambucinum, Phyllachora graminis, P. melinicola, Uredo melinidis, Uromyces setariaeitalicae. Nematodes include: Helicotylenchus dihystera, Hemicriconemoides cocophilus, Meloiodgyne javanica, Peltamigratus nigeriensis, and Scutellonema clathricaudatum. Molasses grass dwarf disease, a small leaf or stunting virus disease carried by Malaxodes farinosus, affects some varieties more than others in Kenya.

(1)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

4.07

(1)Toxicity: No toxicity has been reported by Everist (1974). [although potentially allergenic pollen to susceptible individuals]

(1)FAO. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000273.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

4.08

(1)The fast growing and fire adapted C4 grass has a sprawling growth habit…The grass accumulates a large amount of dead biomass and increases fire hazards. (2)Exotic grasses are a serious threat to biodiversity in the cerrado savannas of central Brazil. Of particular concern is the possible role they may have in impeding tree regeneration at gallery (riverine) forest edges and increasing fire intensity, thereby driving gallery forest retreat. Here we quantify the effect of roads and distance from gallery forests on the abundance of the African grass Melinis minutiflora Beauv. and test for an effect of this species on woody plant regeneration and leaf area index. Melinis was present at approximately 70% of the sites near gallery forest edges, with its frequency declining sharply at greater distances from the edge. Melinis frequency was 2.8 times greater where roads were present nearby. Leaf area index (LAI) of the ground layer was 38% higher where Melinis was present than where it was absent. LAI was strongly correlated to fine fuel mass (r2=0.80), indicating higher fuel loads where Melinis was present. The abundance of tree and shrub species in the ground layer was negatively related to LAI and to the presence of Melinis. The greater fuel accumulation and reduced tree regeneration caused by Melinis may cause a net reduction in forest area by increasing fire intensity at the gallery forest edge and slowing the rate of forest expansion. (3)"A serious pest in dryer environments because of sprawling growth and fire hazard in dry seasons" (4)Melinis is highly resinous and more flammable than Schizachyrium; its green leaves burn vigorously and can burn in 95% relative humidity (111). Subsequent fires are more likely, and when they occur they cause further increases in Melinis cover.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK. (2)Hoffmann, W.A., Lucatelli, V.M.P.C, Silva, F.J., Azeuedo, I.N.C.,Marinho, M.D.S., Albuquerque, A.M.S, Lopes, A.D.O., Moreira, S.P. 2004. Impact of the invasive alien grass Melinis minutiflora at the savanna-forest ecotone in the Brazilian Cerrado. Diversity and Distributions 10: 99–103. (3)Motooka, P./Castro, L./Nelson, D./Nagai, G./Ching, L. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. (4)D'Antonio, C.M./Vitousek, P.M. 1992. Biological Invasions by Exotic Grasses, the Grass/Fire Cycle, and Global Change. Annual Review of Ecology and

4.09

(1)Found in full sunlight and partial shade. (2)Molasses grass is shade-intolerant [11] and thrives in open, disturbed areas [4,19,34] such as burned sites [13,29,45].

(1)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (2)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25].

4.10

(1)Grows on a variety of well-drained soils, with surface textures ranging from sands to medium clays. Tends to grow most vigorously on steep hillsides and road cuttings. Tolerant of low fertility, pH from 4.5-8.4, and high aluminium. Responds to improved fertility. Intolerant of salinity. (2)Soils: In Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park, molasses grass grows on ash-derived soils over pahoehoe lava [11]. Parsons [34] says that molasses grass thrives best on thin soils.

(1)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (2)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25].

4.11

(1)It climbs over shrubs and forms dense and impenetrable mats up to 1.5 m deep on the floor, completely covering large areas and eliminating all native vegetation. (2)Melinis has a sprawling growth form and can climb over shrubs much like a vine.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK. (2)D’antonio, C.M., Hughes, R.F. and Vitousek, P.M. 2001. Factors influencing dynamics of two invasive C4 grasses in seasonally dry Hawaiian woodlands. Ecology 82(1): 89–104.

4.12

(1)It climbs over shrubs and forms dense and impenetrable mats up to 1.5 m deep on the floor, completely covering large areas and eliminating all native vegetation. [smothers other vegetation. See Question 4.11]

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

5.02

(1)Poaceae

(1)Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

5.03

(1)Poaceae

(1)Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

5.04

(1)A tufted and stoloniferous grass of 1.5-2 m height [not a geophyte]

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

6.01

(1)No evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

6.02

(1)It spreads by seeds and by vegetative growth.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)Genetics and reproduction: 2n=36 (Fedorov, 1974). It is apomictic (Barnard, 1969).

(1)FAO. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000273.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

6.05

(1)Poaceae [wind-pollinated]

(1)Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

6.06

(1)It spreads by seeds and by vegetative growth. (2)Spreads quickly under favourable conditions, by virtue of stolons and wind-dispersed seed. (3)Molasses grass may reproduce from seeds [5,11,21,34,46], stolons [5,27,28,33], basal meristems [45], or rhizomes [13,21,46].

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK. (2)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (3)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25].

6.07

(1)Six grasses showed IHE around September second week as soon as the weather became sunny after the rainy season with peak head density in October first half. Another six grasses exhibited floral initiation during November after > 4 months of vegetative growth. Melinis was last to flower as inflorescence exsertion started during fourth week of November as a result of about five months vegetative growth. [flowering phenology of grasses that are already established, not from seed] (2)Crop may be harvested 50 days after planting seed [fast growth rate, probably reached reproductive maturity in <1 year]

(1)Parihar, S.S./Pathak, P. S. 2006. Flowering phenology and seed biology of selected tropical perennial grasses. Tropical Ecology 47(1): 81-87. (2)Duke, J.A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops - Melinis minutiflora. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Melinis_minutiflora.html

7.01

(1)Seed dispersal: Molasses grass seeds are dispersed by wind [38]. (2)"on rocky ground, roadbanks, grasslands, old pasture" [seeds without specific means of external attachment, but small size and habit along roadsides and disturbed areas increases likelihood of unintentional dispersal]

(1)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25]. (2)Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. Volume I. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

7.02

(1)Melinus minutiflora is a spreading perennial mat grass originating from Africa. Distinguished by its sticky, strong smelling foliage, it was widely introduced to tropical countries as a fodder grass and soon became naturalised.

(1)Global Invasive Species Database. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. http://issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1310&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

7.03

(1)It was not known in Colombia until 1906 when seeds were inadvertently included in packets of seed of jaragua, another African invader, that were being sent from Brazil by the Colombian Minister to that country, General Rafael Uribe Uribe (Parsons, 1968, p. 133). [seeds could potentially be blown in and contaminate other produce]

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17.

7.04

(1)Spreads quickly under favourable conditions, by virtue of stolons and wind-dispersed seed.

(1)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

7.05

(1)Seed dispersal: Molasses grass seeds are dispersed by wind [38]. [no evidence of dispersal by water]

(1)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25].

7.06

Seed dispersal: Molasses grass seeds are dispersed by wind [38]. [not fleshy-fruited, and no evidence of dispersal by birds]

(1)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25].

7.07

(1)St. Hilaire had not observed it beyond 17?40'S, but Gardner met it much further north, especially in the vicinity of houses. He thought that it would soon overrun the mountains on the Goias-Minas border, its dissemination being greatly aided by cattle. [internally dispersed, although grass awns could potentially attach to hair or feathers]

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17.

7.08

(1)St. Hilaire had not observed it beyond 17?40'S, but Gardner met it much further north, especially in the vicinity of houses. He thought that it would soon overrun the mountains on the Goias-Minas border, its dissemination being greatly aided by cattle. (2)The grasses also varied in the ability of their seeds to survive in the dung. Dormancy appeared to be important in preventing losses in the faeces...In three other species (Melinis minutiflora, Panicum maximum and Urochloa mosambicensis), germinable seeds were recovered in reasonable numbers.

(1)Parsons, J.T. 1972. Spread of African Pasture Grasses to the American Tropics. Journal of Range Management 25(1): 12-17. (2)Gardener, C. J./McIvor, J. G./Jansen, A. 1993. Passage of Legume and Grass Seeds Through the Digestive Tract of Cattle and Their Survival in Faeces. Journal of Applied Ecology 30(1): 63-74.

8.01

(1)Seed yields mostly range from 100-200 kg/ha, but may be as low as 12 and up to 280 kg/ha depending on conditions, harvest method and provenance [presumably yes when established at high densities] (2)Number of seeds per kg.: Spikelets ("seed") 6-15 million.

(1)Tropical Forages. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (2)FAO. 2010. Melinis minutiflora. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000273.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2010]

8.02

(1)The dormancy of M. minutiflora seeds appeared quite long lasting; viable seeds were still being recovered from the dung when the experiment terminated 3 months after the start of the wet season. (2)Storage Conditions: Long-term storage under IPGRI preferred conditions at RBG Kew, WP. Oldest collection 12 years; germination change 95 to 100%, 11 years, 1 collection (3)Seed banking: Molasses grass seeds can occur in the soil seed bank [11,46]; however, seed longevity is unknown. Tunison and others [46] found that molasses grass seed is "ubiquitous" in the soil of unburned `ōhi`a woodlands in Hawaii. Near Kipuka Nene, Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park, D'Antonio and others [11] extracted molasses grass seeds from soil samples 3 inches (8 cm) deep and 1.8 inches (4.5 cm) wide in October 1991 and February and June 1992. Following extractions, molasses grass seeds were planted in containers and seedling emergence was measured for 3 months following each of the 3 extraction dates. Seed bank samples were taken from an unburned woodland, a woodland burned in 1970, a woodland burned in 1987, and a site burned both in 1970 and 1987. In general, seedling emergence was significantly greater from seeds extracted from burned sites (P<0.05) [11].

(1)Gardener, C. J./McIvor, J. G./Jansen, A. 1993. Passage of Legume and Grass Seeds Through the Digestive Tract of Cattle and Their Survival in Faeces. Journal of Applied Ecology 30(1): 63-74. (2)Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. 2008. Seed Information Database (SID). Version 7.1. Available from: http://data.kew.org/sid/ [Accessed 25 Aug 2010] (3)Hauser, A. S. 2008. Melinis minutiflora. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, August 25].

8.03

(1)An effective chemical control is spraying a mixture of 2,2-DPA and paraquat. (2)Sensitive to glyphosate. HAVO staff reported control with foliar application of glyphosate at 1% product in water.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK. (2)Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa.

8.04

(1)The grass established well after fire…The grass does not withstand grazing or cutting at soil level because the crowns are well above the ground. Thus, repeated cutting can be effective in killing the plants. [Tolerates fire, but not cutting]

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.

8.05

(1)Targeted for biological control research, but permission to import biocontrol agents problematical [widespread in Hawaii, and no effective natural enemies currently known to exist]

(1)Tunison, J.T. 1992. Alien Plant Control Strategies in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Pp. 485-505 in Stone, C.P., Smith, C.W. & Tunison, J.T. (eds.). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawai`i: Management and Research. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit & University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI.


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