Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Piper aduncum; spiked pepper

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

18

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

"It has escaped and established itself in Florida, Southeast Asia, and a number of Pacific Islands."

1.03

no evidence

2.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?316786 (13 February 2003)

Distributional range:
Native:
Northern America: Mexico [s.]
Southern America: Barbados; Belize; Bolivia; Brazil [probably]; Colombia [probably]; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; Ecuador; El Salvador; French Guiana; Grenada; Guatemala; Guyana; Hispaniola; Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Nicaragua; Panama; Peru; Puerto Rico; St. Vincent and Grenadines; Suriname; Venezuela
Other: naturalized elsewhere in tropics

2.02

2.03

http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/Wpapers/rmap_wp05.pdf.

p.2 "It is now very common in fallow vegetation on hillsides in Morobe Province. It grows up to about 1600 m altitude, and occasionally as high as 1730 m."

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?316786 (13 February 2003)

Distributional range:
Native:
Northern America: Mexico [s.]
Southern America: Barbados; Belize; Bolivia; Brazil [probably]; Colombia [probably]; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; Ecuador; El Salvador; French Guiana; Grenada; Guatemala; Guyana; Hispaniola; Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Nicaragua; Panama; Peru; Puerto Rico; St. Vincent and Grenadines; Suriname; Venezuela
Other: naturalized elsewhere in tropics

2.05

(1) Smith, R. M.; Kassim, H. (1979) The essential oil of Piper aduncum from Fiji. New Zealand Journal of Science, 1979, Vol.22, No.2, pp.127-128, 9 ref.
(2) Kidd, S. B. (1996) A note on Piper aduncum in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. Science in New Guinea, 1996, Vol.22, No.3, pp.121-123, 4 ref.
(3) http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf

(1) Fiji, (2) Papua New Guinea, (3) "It has escaped and established itself in Florida, Southeast Asia, and a number of Pacific Islands."

3.01

Hartemink, A. E. (2001) The invasion of Piper aduncum in Papua New Guinea: friend or foe? Flora Malesiana Bulletin, 2002, Vol.13, No.1, pp.66-68, 5 ref.

(1) "The rapid spread of P. aduncum in Papua New Guinea, which is attributed to its accelerated regeneration mostly in canopy gaps formed through logging, shifting cultivation and forest fires."

3.02

Hartemink, A. E. (2002) The invasion of Piper aduncum in Papua New Guinea: friend or foe? Flora Malesiana Bulletin, 2002, Vol.13, No.1, pp.66-68, 5 ref. (2)http://www.ursula-nothhelfer.de/thesis/2.2.2.html (3)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WG209 (4)Wunderlin, R.P. 1998. Guide to the vascular plants of Florida. University press of Florida. Gainesville.

(1)The rapid spread of P. aduncum in Papua New Guinea, which is attributed to its accelerated regeneration mostly in canopy gaps formed through logging, shifting cultivation and forest fires." (2)Piper aduncum --These species are all indicators for human intervention (3)invade hardwood hammocks, especially margins and canopy gaps. (4)Disturbed tropical hammocks, rare.

3.03

Kidd, S. B. (1996) A note on Piper aduncum in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. Science in New Guinea, 1996, Vol.22, No.3, pp.121-123, 4 ref.

AB: "In many areas the species is viewed favourably and used as fuelwood, and found in fallow systems and marsh drainage, but in other areas it is viewed as a serious problem, and new garden sites are cut from primary bush rather than from Piper aduncum fallow. "

3.04

see 3.01 -- seems to be an indicator of disturbance

3.05

Julie S. Denslow and Duane Nelson. Impact Assessment : Escape and Spread of Piper auritum Kunth on Pohnpei, FSM.
Available at: <http://www.hear.org/pier/piaurr.htm>

"In Hawaii and South Florida it also spreads aggressively and is likely to do so in Pohnpei. P. auritum is likely to become an invasive and noxious weed of sakau plantings and will threaten native forests as well."; "An economic analysis (Appendix 1) indicates that immediate action and expenditures of an estimated US $93,000 over a three year period would yield US $$3,034,000 benefit and a benefit cost ratio or 32.5. If control is delayed 2-5 years, the area requiring treatment increases dramatically as do costs. We recommend immediate eradication of existing plantings by direct injection or cut stem application of triclopyr amine (Garlon 3AÔ) following label directions

4.01

John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

no description of these traits

4.02

no evidence

4.03

no evidence

4.04

no evidence

4.05

no evidence

4.06

Albuquerque, F. C. de; Hamada, M.; Duarte, M. L. R. (1997) Piper aduncum , new host of Nectria haematococca f.sp. piperis within wild Piper population in the Brazilian Amazon.[FT: Piper aduncum espécie nativa da Amazônia Brasileira, hospedeira de Nectria haematococca f.sp. piperis .] Fitopatologia Brasileira, 1997, Vol.22, No.2, pp.201-204, 6 ref.

AB: "It is concluded that as P. aduncum is widespread in the secondary vegetation all over the State of Pará, it is possible that this species has become the primary inoculum source of this pathogen for new black pepper plantations."

4.07

Vianna, W. de O.; Akisue, G. (1997) Morphological characterization of Piper aduncum L. [FT: Caracterização morfológica de Piper aduncum L.] LECTA, 1997, Vol.15, No.1/2, pp.11-62, 30 ref.

AB: " A decoction of the leaves is used against dysentery and external ulcers."

4.08

no evidence [growth in wet habitats]

4.09

(1)Lovelock, C. E.; Jebb, M.; Osmond, C. B. (1994) Photoinhibition and recovery in tropical plant species: response to disturbance. Oecologia, 1994, Vol.97, No.3, pp.297-307, 29 ref. (2)http://www.tropilab.com/spikedpepper.html

(1)"Disturbance, which is required for establishment, includes removal of the forest canopy to allow light to enter and the creation of a bare soil surface, although plants occasionally establish themselves on rotting logs and stumps. Bamboo piper is moderately intolerant of shade. It can survive and grow slowly under a moderate overstory but requires at least partial exposure to grow large and flower. The species commonly grows in clearcuts, tree-fall gaps, shade-grown coffee and other tree plantations, brushy pastures, roadsides, and landslides. (2)full sun / light shade

4.1

John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

"Most soils are colonized including fill dirt, but not salty soils and excessively welldrained soils at the dry end of the range."

4.11

shrub

4.12

(1) Rogers, H. M.; Hartemink, A. E. (2000) Soil seed bank and growth rates of an invasive species, Piper aduncum , in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 2000, Vol.16, No.2, pp.243-251, 19 ref.
(2) The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, Molokai Office
(P.O. Box 220, Kualapuu, HI 96757; phone: 808-553-5236 / 524-0779, FAX: 808-553-9870)
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

(1) AB: "Aggressive invasion and monospecific stands of P. aduncum are explained by its dominance in the seed bank, fast growth, and high rates of biomass accumulation."
(2) " Bamboo piper grows as individual plants or in thickets. As many as 2,632 plants/ha were reported in areas invaded in the Philippines."

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

shrub; Piperaceae

5.03

no evidence

5.04

shrub

6.01

no evidence

6.02

John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

"Only 7 percent germinated when placed on moist filter paper"

6.03

no evidence

6.04

no evidence

6.05

no evidence [Piperaceae flowers may be bat pollinated]

6.06

John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

"Established plants thicken into clumps by suckers arising from the root crown."

6.07

no evidence

7.01

John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

spread by the movement of equipment between land masses."

7.02

John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>

spread by the movement of equipment between land masses."

7.03

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?316786 (13 February 2003)

"potential" seed contaminant (mostly of unknown importance fide Atlas WWeed) [does not meet the criterion for "likely"]

7.04

no evidence

7.05

no evidence

7.06

(1) John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf>
(2) Frank J. Bonaccorso, John R. Winkelmann (jwinkelm@gettysburg.edu), Elizabeth R. Dumont, and Katherine Thibault (2002) Home Range of Dobsonia minor (Pteropodidae): A Solitary, Foliage-roosting Fruit Bat in Papua New Guinea
Biotropica, 2002.Volume 34 Number 1
Available at: <http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/Wpapers/rmap_wp05.pdf>

(1) "The cordlike spikes are borne opposite leaves and contain many, minute flowers that soon develop into numerous tiny, imbedded drupes with brown or black seeds. The seeds are dispersed by bats, birds, and possibly arboreal rodents."
(2) "Lesser bare-backed bats (Dobsonia minor [Pteropodidae]) are solitary and roost in foliage of understory and subcanopy trees in lowland rain forest. Fruits of native Ficus species and the exotic shrub Piper aduncum were staple food items. Piper aduncum grew as dense clusters within early successional habitats, and individual plants ripened 5-20 fruits per night throughout the year.." [primarily bat dispersed?]

7.07

no evidence

7.08

bird-dispersed

8.01

(1)John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf> (2)http://www.tropilab.com/spikedpepper.html (3)Frank J. Bonaccorso, John R. Winkelmann (jwinkelm@gettysburg.edu), Elizabeth R. Dumont, and Katherine Thibault (2002) Home Range of Dobsonia minor (Pteropodidae): A Solitary, Foliage-roosting Fruit Bat in Papua New Guinea
Biotropica, 2002.Volume 34 Number 1
Available at: <http://rspas.anu.edu.au/rmap/Wpapers/rmap_wp05.pdf>

(1)"Reproduction.—Bamboo piper flowers and fruits throughout the year (Little and Wadsworth 1964). Air-dried seeds from a Puerto Rican source averaged 0.000237 g/seed or 4.2 million/kg. Only 7 percent germinated when placed on moist filter paper (author's observation)." [very small seeds] (2)The fruit is a one seeded berry (3)individual plants ripened 5-20 fruits per night throughout the year [translates into 2000-7000 seeds per plant, but plants can easily exceed 2 m square; borderline]

8.02

Rogers, H. M.; Hartemink, A. E. (2000) Soil seed bank and growth rates of an invasive species, Piper aduncum , in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 2000, Vol.16, No.2, pp.243-251, 19 ref.

AB: "In studies conducted in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea, P. aduncum , a shrub originating from South America, accounted for 69% (408 m-2) of the seed bank in the forest and 53% (1559 m-2) of the seed bank under fallow. About 90% of the tree seed bank at the fallow site was dominated by P. aduncum whereas this was 78% in the forest soil. "

8.03

(1)John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf> (2)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WG209

"Infestations of bamboo piper can be controlled by uprooting young plants and spraying older plants with broadleaf weed killers such as 2,4-D. Treated areas should be checked in a few weeks and treated again if regrowth has occurred." (2)use basal bark application of 20% Garlon 4, or cut stems off at ground level and treat stumps with 50% Garlon 3A

8.04

(1)John K. Francis, Research Forester, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, P.O. Box 25000, Río Piedras, PR 00928-5000.
Available at: <http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/Piper%20aduncum.pdf> (2)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WG209

(1)ability to sucker (2)broken roots may resprout

8.05

no evidence