Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Paederia foetida L.; Paederia scandens, Paederia tomentosa, maile pilau, stink maile, skunk vine

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

2

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

n

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

21

Notes

Source

1.01

no evidence

1.02

"It has been introduced into North America (North Carolina, Texas, Louisiana), Hawaii, Christmas Islands, Mauritius and Reunion as an ornamental and escaped."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

1.03

"Despite its weediness, Paederia foetida germinates rather slowly, and tetraploids germinate quicker than hexaploids, in 5—16(—22) days, or in 17—24 days, respectively. "

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

2.01

Distributional range:
Native:
ASIA-TEMPERATE
China: China - Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong [incl. Hainan], Guangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang; Hong Kong; Macau
Eastern Asia: Japan - Honshu, Kyushu, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku; Korea, South; Taiwan
ASIA-TROPICAL
Indian Subcontinent: Bangladesh; Bhutan [s.]; India - Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, West Bengal [n.]; Nepal
North Indian Ocean: India - Andaman and Nicobar
Indo-China: Cambodia; Laos; Myanmar; Thailand; Vietnam
Malesia: Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines; Singapore
Other: naturalized in Mascarenes, Hawaii, & s. United States

2.02

2.03

"Ecology Paederia foetida occurs commonly as a ruderal in thickets and woodland, but also along forest edges, in secondary evergreen to deciduous forest and clearings in primary forest. It also grows in montane vegetation up to 3000 m altitude, on steep, forested slopes, or on sandy or rocky sea coasts."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

2.04

"In Hawai'i, this species is naturalized on the islands of Kaua'i, O'ahu, Maui, and Hawai'i where it is often locally common in disturbed mesic forest, coastal sites, dry forest, and subalpine woodland, 1-1,830 m (1-6,004 ft)"

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm

2.05

naturalized in Mascarenes, Hawaii, & Southern United States

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program.Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) Online Database].

3.01

"It has been introduced into North America (North Carolina, Texas, Louisiana), Hawaii, Christmas Islands, Mauritius and Reunion as an ornamental and escaped."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

3.02

(1)"In Florida, P. foetida...is troublesome along highways and on powerlines" (2)By 1916, it was identified as a problematic weed, when it was found to have entangled ornamental plants near the city of Brooksville, in west central Florida.

(1)http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm (2)http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/oct03/skunk1003.htm

3.03

(1)"In Florida, P. foetida invades pasture land " (2)in Hawaii it causes the most trouble in horticultural crops.[Ken Teramoto, of the Hawaii, Department of Agriculture] (3)May be controlled with directed applications of foliage to avoid supporting vegetation, though some non-target damage is likely. May be controlled with basal bark applications with 20% triclopyr ester product in oil, taking care to only treat vines and not contact supporting vegetation." (Motooka et al., 2002) [Motooka, P., L. Castro, D. Nelson, G. Nagai and L. Ching . 2002. Weeds of pastures and natural areas of Hawaii and their management. UHCTAHR, Honolulu ; control methods have been developed]

(1)http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm (2)http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/oct03/skunk1003.htm (3)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/paederia_foetida.htm

3.04

(1)"P. foetida thrives in a variety of habitats and has aggressive growth. Vines climb on desirable shrubs and trees, weighing them down and impeding regeneration below the dense shade." (2)Category 1 invasive plant in Florida (3)In Florida, invades various native plant communities, including sandhill, floodplain, and upland mixed forest. Can create dense canopies leading to damage or death of native vegetation (Gann and Gordon 1998). In Orange County, found in relatively wet areas, growing on wetland natives such as dahoon holly (Ilex cassine L.). Has smothered out portions of one of the few remaining populations of the endemic, federally endangered Cooley’s water willow (Justicia cooleyi Monachino & Leonard) (S. Bowman, Native Plant Society, and D. Martin, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995 personal communications).

(1)http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm (2)http://www.fleppc.org/Plantlist/03list.htm (3)http://www.fleppc.org/pdf/paederia%20foetida.pdf

3.05

P. cruddasiana (sewer vine) is also considered a weed.

Gann, G. Gordon, D. R. (1998) Paederia foetida (skunk vine) and P. cruddasiana (sewer vine): threats and management strategies. Natural Areas Journal, 1998, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 169-174, 24 ref.

4.01

no description of these traits

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

4.02

no evidence

4.03

no evidence

4.04

'Skunk vine also invades pasturelands, where cattle have been observed grazing on the weed. Effects on growth and reproduction of livestock, however, are unknown (Gann and Gordon, 1998).'

http://www.invasive.org/eastern/biocontrol/27SkunkVine.html

4.05

no evidence

4.06

(1) Among insects collected from the Hawaiian islands in July-October 1976, was a sphingid, Macroglossum pyrrhostictum Btlr., which is recorded for the first time in the USA; it was trapped at first on the island of Oahu in July, where it fed on Impatiens flowers, and subsequently on the island of Hawaii at light in October. Larvae presumed to belong to the same species are currently being reared on Paederia foetida, one of its known food-plants in eastern Asia.
(2) "In India, Paederia foetida is attacked by Uredo paederiae causing rust, and also by Puccinia zoysiae causing leaf spot." [P. zoysiae is a rust fungi attacking Zoysia grass species]

(1) USA, United States Department of Agriculture (1976) Hawaii pest report - new records. Cooperative Plant Pest Report, 1976, Vol. 1, No. 42, pp. 764
(2)

4.07

"The leaves of Paederia foetida are widely used in Asia and South-East Asia for the treatment of intestinal complaints such as colic, cramps, flatulence, dysentery and also for rheumatism and gout. In India and Indo-China, the stem, leaves and seeds are applied specifically for rheumatism, alone or in mixtures with other plants."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

4.08

(1)may alter the impact of fire, which occurs in many of the invaded communities (Gann and Gordon, 1998) [dense vines grow into canopies and eventually die] (20 provides a "fire ladder" to tree tops.

(1)http://www.invasiveplants.net/biologicalcontrol/27SkunkVine.html (2)http://www.nsis.org/garden/garden-native-invasive.html

4.09

(1)"regeneration below dense shade" (2)Sun to Partial Shade (3)grows in forest shade

(1)http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm (2)http://plantsdatabase.com/go/31883 (3)http://www.invasiveplants.net/biologicalcontrol/27SkunkVine.html

4.1

"shows wide-ranging adaptability to different light, soil, and salt conditions "

http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/paefoe.pdf

4.11

"P. foetida is an aggressive smothering vine that tolerates a variety of habitats and climatic regimes and is known to become a pest in areas where it is introduced including the southern United States and Hawai'i."

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm

4.12

no evidence

5.01

"Ecology Paederia foetida occurs commonly as a ruderal in thickets and woodland, but also along forest edges, in secondary evergreen to deciduous forest and clearings in primary forest. It also grows in montane vegetation up to 3000 m altitude, on steep, forested slopes, or on sandy or rocky sea coasts."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

5.02

vine, Rubiaceae

5.03

vine, Rubiaceae

5.04

no description of these traits

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

6.01

"Paederia foetida can be found flowering and fruiting throughout the year in tropical and subtropical conditions; in other localities, it flowers during the rainy season, and fruits early in the dry season. "

6.02

"Propagation: P. foetida can be propagated from seeds and cuttings."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

6.03

no evidence

6.04

"Paederia foetida is protrandrous and self-incompatible"

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

6.05

"Bees and butterflies have been observed to visit the flowers."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

6.06

"Sometimes, shoots produce adventitious roots when they come in contact with the soil, and can thus be propagated as well."

Aquilar, N.O., 2002. Paederia foetida L.. [Internet] Record number 1217 from TEXTFILE On-line. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed: Saturday, 08 May 2004.

6.07

Fast-growing minimum estimage for a fast growing herbaceous/woody vine]

http://www.fleppc.org/pdf/paederia%20foetida.pdf

7.01

"In Florida, spread is also known to occur when plants are discarded in yard waste (Possley and Brazis 1998)."

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm

7.02

"cultivated in warm regions of the world as an ornamental vine."

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm

7.03

no evidence

7.04

kunk vine has spherical fruits and the seed (diaspores) lack wings, whereas sewer vine has fruits that are laterally compressed and seeds that are conspicuously winged.

http://www.weedbiocontrol.org/skunkvine/biology.html

7.05

no evidence

7.06

(1)"In the United States and in Hawai'i, it is suspected that seeds are spread by fruit eating birds" (2)seeds may be dispersed by birds (Gann-Matzen 1994). (3)Mocking birds are said to feed on its seeds

(1)http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm (2)http://www.fleppc.org/pdf/paederia%20foetida.pdf (3)http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/paefoe.html

7.07

no evidence

7.08

bird-dispersed

8.01

"Fruit a drupe, (sub)globose, 4—6 mm in diameter, walls thin, dry, brittle, crowned by the persistent sepals, shiny pale brown to yellowish- or reddish-brown; pyrenes 2, semi-orbicular or semi-ellipsoidal, plano-convex or compressed, slightly smaller than fruit, without conspicuous wings, black, often conspicuously covered with raphides." [probably no, fruit with few seeds]

USA, United States Department of Agriculture (1976) Hawaii pest report - new records. Cooperative Plant Pest Report, 1976, Vol. 1, No. 42, pp. 764

8.02

Despite its weediness, Paederia foetida germinates rather slowly, and tetraploids germinate quicker than hexaploids, in 5—16(—22) days, or in 17—24 days, respectively. [no known dormancy]

USA, United States Department of Agriculture (1976) Hawaii pest report - new records. Cooperative Plant Pest Report, 1976, Vol. 1, No. 42, pp. 764

8.03

(1)Herbicides that contain the active ingredients triclopyr amine (Garlon 3A and Brush-B-Gone), triclopyr ester (Garlon 4), and imazapic (Plateau) provide effective control. Garlon 3A, Garlon 4, and Plateau are available at agriculture supply stores. Brush-B-Gon is available at hardware and garden supply stores. Complete control is not achieved with a single application; follow-up applications are necessary. (2)Control of the weed is very difficult because stock plants are easily injured if herbicides are applied.

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WG208 (2)http://www.invasiveplants.net/biologicalcontrol/27SkunkVine.html

8.04

(1)"Physical control: It may be possible to remove P. foetida mechanically, though there is a lot of biomass and regrowth is likely." [no direct evidence] (2)Its stems root freely. [would give tolerance of cultivation] (3)Cut stems die above, but regrow from below.

(1)http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/paederia_foetida.htm (2)http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/paefoe.html (3)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WG208

8.05

Macroglossum pyrrhostictum Btlr., which is recorded for the first time in the USA; it was trapped at first on the island of Oahu in July, where it fed on Impatiens flowers, and subsequently on the island of Hawaii at light in October. Larvae presumed to belong to the same species are currently being reared on Paederia foetida, one of its known food-plants in eastern Asia. [a hawkmoth which larvae use this species is recorded in Hawaii ]

USA, United States Department of Agriculture (1976) Hawaii pest report - new records. Cooperative Plant Pest Report, 1976, Vol. 1, No. 42, pp. 764