Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Dichrostachys cinerea


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 16


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.

Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Dichrostachys cinerea (Dichrostachys glomerata, sickle bush, Acacia Saint Dominique, aroma, Kalahari Christmas tree, Chinese lantern tree)

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

y

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

y

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

16

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

No evidence

1.02

Naturalized in Cuba and Trinidad. - 'In Cuba, forms dense, impenetrable thickets.' '“In the Trinidad Valley and the regions surrounding Cienfuegos the tree is unchecked and forms veritable forests on hill land or in areas on which cane growing has been discontinued.'

http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

1.03

8 subspecies and 7 varieties recognized - no evidence of these varieties being weedy.

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb/6.00/taxa/18.shtml

2.01

(1)D. cinerea is widely distributed in the seasonally dry tropics of Africa, Asia and Australia. (2)Native range: Africa to India, Southern Thailand and Malesia, Northern Territories of Australia (although may be a naturalized species there per Cowan, 1998).

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

2.02

2.03

(1)Approximate limits north to south: 32°N to 30°S. Altitude range: 0 - 2000 m (2)It penetrates clear-cut areas far into the rainforest zone. In Malaysia, it occurs in areas with strong seasonal climate, usually on poor, occasionally clayey soils, in brushwood, thickets, hedges, teak forest and grassland. Forms dense hammocks on lateritic soils in Senegal and Sudan, while in India it occurs in dry deciduous forest. It can be an indicator of overgrazing in low rainfall areas.

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://ecocrop.fao.org/

2.04

(1)D. cinerea is widely distributed in the seasonally dry tropics of Africa, Asia and Australia. (2)Native range: Africa to India, Southern Thailand and Malesia, Northern Territories of Australia (although may be a naturalized species there per Cowan, 1998).

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

2.05

List of countries where planted
Asia
: India, Pakistan
Africa: Egypt
Caribbean: Cuba, Jamaica
North America: USA (Florida)

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.01

Naturalized in Cuba and Trinidad. - 'In Cuba, forms dense, impenetrable thickets.' '“In the Trinidad Valley and the regions surrounding Cienfuegos the tree is unchecked and forms veritable forests on hill land or in areas on which cane growing has been discontinued.'

http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

3.02

(1)'In Cuba, forms dense, impenetrable thickets.' '“In the Trinidad Valley and the regions surrounding Cienfuegos the tree is unchecked and forms veritable forests on hill land or in areas on which cane growing has been discontinued.' (2)It forms thickets where overgrazing has prevented veldt fires. (3)It penetrates clear-cut areas far into the rainforest zone. [DISTRUBANCE weed]

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (2)http://www.saweb.co.za/botany/garden/species/119.html (3)http://ecocrop.fao.org/

3.03

(1)D. cinerea can become an aggressive colonizer, forming impenetrable thickets on badly-managed pasture lands. (2)‘Whole farms in central Cuba have been rendered useless by this foreign nuisance without any effort being made to check the curse and that good farm land is being abandoned in disgust’. (3)Serious weed in South Africa, Principle weed in Ghana, Cuba (4)forms a dense understorey in plantations of Eucalyptus and Pinus spp.

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (3)Holm et al. 1977. Geographic atlas of World Weeds. (4)Kudela, M. (1978) Chemical control of Dichrostachys glomerata in Cuba. (Foreign Title: Exterminacion quimica del marabu, Dichrostachys glomerata (Forsk.) Macbride, en Cuba.) Silvaecultura Tropica et Subtropica, 1978, No. 6, pp. 71-78, 8 ref.

3.04

Disturbance weed

3.05

AB: This spiny shrub up to 4 m high, introduced from E. Africa a century ago, covers about 10% of Cuba and also forms a dense understorey in plantations of Eucalyptus and Pinus spp. Control trials with esters of 2,4,5-T or 2,4,5-t + 2,4-D were made on an infested afforestation site in Matanzas province in 1971-73. The best season for foliar spraying (at 4-6 litres/ha) was Oct./Nov., after the end of the wet season. A second spraying not less than 2 months later is recommended to control new seedlings. In eucalypt plantations, good control was obtained by spraying freshly cut stumps, or basal bark, with 4-5% 2,4,5-T esters in diesel oil. [Dichrostachys glomerata is a SYNONYM for D. cinerea]

Kudela, M. (1978) Chemical control of Dichrostachys glomerata in Cuba. (Foreign Title: Exterminacion quimica del marabu, Dichrostachys glomerata (Forsk.) Macbride, en Cuba.) Silvaecultura Tropica et Subtropica, 1978, No. 6, pp. 71-78, 8 ref.

4.01

(1)D. cinerea is a highly variable thorny shrub or small tree, widely distributed in the seasonally dry tropics of Africa, Asia and Australia (2)In the early stages of the formation of these forests the tree forms thickets quite impenetrable on account of the density and the abundance of long, stiff, sharp thorns.

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

4.02

No evidence

4.03

No evidence

4.04

… suitable for use in silvopastoral systems and is a popular fodder tree.'

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.05

(1)Probably not '… suitable for use in silvopastoral systems and is a popular fodder tree.' (2)AB: Six male Barbari goats were fed exclusively on D. cinerea foliage (leaves and tender twigs) having CP, NDF and lignin contents of 13.13, 74.29 and 10.89%, respectively. The voluntary intake of DM, DCP and TDN was 96.40, 5.72 and 59.12 g/kg W0.75, respectively. The digestibility coefficients of DM, OM, CP, ether extract, CF and NFE were 63.23, 64.86, 45.19, 23.50, 73.84 and 64.14%, respectively. The DCP and TDW contents of the fodder were 5.93 and 61.39%, respectively, suggesting that D. cinerea foliage is satisfactory for supporting goats in semiarid areas.

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)ET: Chemical composition, uptake and apparent digestibility of Dichrostachys cinerea (brij-babul) foliage in goats.
AU: Sharma, K.; Nawab Singh; Ogra, J. L.
SO: Range Management and Agroforestry, 1990, Vol.11, No.2, pp.217-220, 4 ref.

4.06

(1)Pests recorded
Insect pests:
Ctenoplusia albostriata [1]
Kerria lacca (2)The following 3 fungi were listed to be associated with D. cinerea: Endothiella natalensis: South Africa - 6865
Mycosphaerella dichrostachydis: Zimbabwe - 8318
Ravenelia deformis: India - 37907
Did not find any of the above to be recognized pests.

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/all/FindRecOneFungusFrame.cfm

4.07

(1)Dichrostachys spp.; Marabou Thorn
The spines of some African species are said to produce irritant or poisonous effects if they penetrate the skin (Irvine 1961, Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). (2)Fruit and seeds are edible.

(1)http://bodd.cf.ac.uk/index.html (2)http://ecocrop.fao.org/

4.08

(1) It is resistant to frost, drought and fire.
(2) suggested to be used to buld a fire break belt

(1) CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/Tech/4tech.htm

4.09

(1)Tolerates shade (2)Light intensity - very bright to clear skies [no shade] [conflicting information]

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://ecocrop.fao.org/

4.1

Soil texture: light; medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free; seasonally waterlogged
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral
- Special soil tolerances: saline; infertile

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

Not climbing.

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb/6.00/taxa/18.shtml

4.12

(1)D. cinerea can become an aggressive colonizer, forming impenetrable thickets on badly-managed pasture lands. (2)In Cuba, forms dense, impenetrable thickets. In the early stages of the formation of these forests the tree forms thickets quite impenetrable on account of the density and the abundance of long, stiff, sharp thorns.

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

5.01

Terrestrial

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.02

D. cinerea is a highly variable thorny shrub or small tree … has the ability to fix nitrogen.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.03

D. cinerea is a highly variable thorny shrub or small tree … has the ability to fix nitrogen.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.04

D. cinerea is a highly variable thorny shrub or small tree … has the ability to fix nitrogen.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.01

No evidence

http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

6.02

Propagation: Seed, suckers.

http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

6.03

No evidence

6.04

Don’t know

6.05

(1)Dichrostachys cinerea (Mimosoideae) a common shrub in peninsular India had inflorescence with pink neuter flowers at distal and functional yellow flowers at the apical end. These pink neuter flowers change colour to white on senescence. This study investigates the role of attractive pink neuter flowers on the male/female reproductive success of the species and its influence on pollinator behaviour. Dichrostachys cinerea was mainly pollinated by Xylocopa pubescens. The pollinators were exposed to plants with and without neuter flowers. Results showed that removal of the neuter had a strong effect on pollinator choice. The visitation rate was higher in controls compared to the experimental plants. Poor visitation did not depress the fecundity. The colour change in these flowers from pink to white on senescence also promotes male reproductive success by directing the pollinators to the right flowers. It is suggested that increasing male reproductive success could be the function of investment in such attracti

(1)M. Soubadra Devy, Madras Christian College, tambaram, Chennai 600 059, India (1999) Abstract 4212 from Intl. Bot. Congress 1999
ATTRACTIVE NEUTER FLOWERS AND ITS COLOUR CHANGE IN DICHROSTACHYS CINEREA (MIMOSOIDEAE): A MEANS TO INCREASE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/ibc99/ibc/abstracts/listen/abstracts/4212.html (2)http://ecocrop.fao.org/

6.06

(1)It is easy to propagate from seed or suckers … (2)From these centers the tree spreads in all directions by means of the advancing horizontal root system and by means of the seeds.

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

6.07

Don’t know

7.01

'Probably yes- 'The distribution of the tree is probably effected in part by cattle carrying seeds in the hoofs when driven or transported over the island …'

http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

7.02

It is used as an ornamental in Thailand, and in Africa it is used medicinally.

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

Economic importance: Weed: HI; potential seed contaminant (fide Noxious = Weed [generic statement for all plants on HI noxious weed list]

http://indaba.iucn.org/archives/aliens-l/WWWmsgs/April99-Feb2000/00000652.htm

7.04

(1)The distribution of the tree is probably effected in part by cattle carrying seeds in the hoofs when driven or transported over the island. Cattle also greatly relish the seeds, and it is possible that they are capable of germination after passing through the animal. (2) '... Dichrostachys cinerea seeds are impermeable to water and do not germinate readily.... Seeds ingested by herbivorous browsers such as nyala, became permeable....'

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (2)TI: The role of natural agents in the removal of coat-imposed dormancy in Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight et Arn. seeds.
AU: Van-Staden-J; Kelly-K-M; Bell-W-E
SO: Plant-Growth-Regulation. 1994; 14 (1) 51-59..
PY: 1994

7.05

(1)The distribution of the tree is probably effected in part by cattle carrying seeds in the hoofs when driven or transported over the island. Cattle also greatly relish the seeds, and it is possible that they are capable of germination after passing through the animal. (2) '... Dichrostachys cinerea seeds are impermeable to water and do not germinate readily.... Seeds ingested by herbivorous browsers such as nyala, became permeable....'

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (2)TI: The role of natural agents in the removal of coat-imposed dormancy in Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight et Arn. seeds.
AU: Van-Staden-J; Kelly-K-M; Bell-W-E
SO: Plant-Growth-Regulation. 1994; 14 (1) 51-59..
PY: 1994

7.06

(1)The distribution of the tree is probably effected in part by cattle carrying seeds in the hoofs when driven or transported over the island. Cattle also greatly relish the seeds, and it is possible that they are capable of germination after passing through the animal. (2) '... Dichrostachys cinerea seeds are impermeable to water and do not germinate readily.... Seeds ingested by herbivorous browsers such as nyala, became permeable....'

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (2)TI: The role of natural agents in the removal of coat-imposed dormancy in Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight et Arn. seeds.
AU: Van-Staden-J; Kelly-K-M; Bell-W-E
SO: Plant-Growth-Regulation. 1994; 14 (1) 51-59..
PY: 1994

7.07

(1)The distribution of the tree is probably effected in part by cattle carrying seeds in the hoofs when driven or transported over the island. Cattle also greatly relish the seeds, and it is possible that they are capable of germination after passing through the animal. (2) '... Dichrostachys cinerea seeds are impermeable to water and do not germinate readily.... Seeds ingested by herbivorous browsers such as nyala, became permeable....'

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (2)TI: The role of natural agents in the removal of coat-imposed dormancy in Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight et Arn. seeds.
AU: Van-Staden-J; Kelly-K-M; Bell-W-E
SO: Plant-Growth-Regulation. 1994; 14 (1) 51-59..
PY: 1994

7.08

(1)The distribution of the tree is probably effected in part by cattle carrying seeds in the hoofs when driven or transported over the island. Cattle also greatly relish the seeds, and it is possible that they are capable of germination after passing through the animal. (2) '... Dichrostachys cinerea seeds are impermeable to water and do not germinate readily.... Seeds ingested by herbivorous browsers such as nyala, became permeable....' (3)Giraffe, buffalo, kudu, impala and Nyala eat the pods.

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (2)TI: The role of natural agents in the removal of coat-imposed dormancy in Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight et Arn. seeds.
AU: Van-Staden-J; Kelly-K-M; Bell-W-E
SO: Plant-Growth-Regulation. 1994; 14 (1) 51-59..
PY: 1994

8.01

seeds relatively large. Pod narrowly oblong, variously curved and/or coiled, 5-7 cm long, 8-15 mm wide, blackish, glabrous. Seeds biconvex, elliptic to subcircular, 4 mm long, 2-4 mm wide, pale tan, glossy; pleurogram elliptic.” [pods in clusters w/ no more than ~100 seeds per cluster but clusters are sparse on branches; see photo http://www.hear.org/pier/images/dicinp14.jpg; unlikely to have > 1000 /m2]

http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm

8.02

'… We determined seed mass, seed shape ratio and the variance in seed dimensions (based on axiometric dimensions) in relation to depth of burial for three common spinescent savanna trees/shrubs, Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis and Dichrostachys cinerea. These species are hard-seeded and form at least short-term persistent (1-5 years) soil seed banks. ...'

TI: Variations in seed size shape in relation to depth of burial in the soil and predispersal predation in Acacia nilotica, A. torilis and Dichrostachys cinerea.
AU: Garner-R-D; Witkowski-E-T-F {a}
SO: South-African-Journal-of-Botany. Dec., 1997; 63 (6) 371-377..
PY: 1997

8.03

The results of 3 trials in which herbicides were applied aerially to control bush on severely-infested natural grassland in Mozambique, are reported. Acacia nilotica, A. borleae and Dichrostachys cinerea were killed by a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T at 1.8 kg/ha, by 2,4,5-T alone at 1.8 kg/ha and by Silvex (fenoprop) at 0.5 kg/ha;...

Almeida, F. S. de (1974) Bush control in grassland by aerial spraying. Proceedings of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa., 1974, No. Volume 9, pp. 73-76

8.04

(1)Coppices well. It is resistant to frost, drought and fire. (2)In addition there are supporting roots at an acute angle to the tap root and frequently many fibrous roots. The lateral or horizontal roots may lie at varying depths but are usually only a few inches below the surface of the ground. It is these roots that make eradication difficult. If the parent tree is cut down, these roots at once sprout profusely. If their removal is attempted, any small section left in the soil immediately develops fibrous roots and produces shoots. (3)Can spread by root sprouts and be invasive

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hear.org/pier/dicin.htm (3)http://gecko.gc.maricopa.edu/glendalelibrary/GLIS%20Dichrostachys%20cinerea.htm

8.05

Don’t know


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