Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don, Asteraceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Conyza carolinensis Jacq., Pluchea symphytifolia auct.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: cattletongue, cure-for-all, curry plant, pluchea, shrubby fleabane, sourbush, stinking fleabane, sweet scent, wild tobacco

I-Kiribati: te kaikare, te karei

Spanish: tabat-diable

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Erect shrub, pubescent throughout; leaves dull gray-green, elliptic-lanceolate or narrowly elliptic-subovate, 8-16 x 3-6 cm, petiolate, entire, base acute or tapered, apex acute or subobtuse; inflorescence compound, terminal and subterminal, somewhat corymbose in appearance; heads of rather numerous flowers; involucral bracts broadly deltoid; heads slightly urceolate, about 7 x 5 mm; perfect flowers 12-17 per head; corollas pink or pinkish to white, the 5 lobes very small, tooth-like; pappus bristles mostly 10-12 per achene; mature achenes brownish-black" (Stone, 1970; p. 589).

"Erect shrub 1-2.5 m tall, much branched, branches densely tomentose. Leaves oblong-ovate to elliptic, 6-15 cm long, 2-6 cm wide, thinly tomentose and glandular on both surfaces, upper surface green, lower surface grayish, apex mucronulate-obtuse, margins entire or nearly so, base attenuate, petioles 1-2.5 cm long. Capitula 5-7 mm (when fresh) or ca. 10 mm (in dried specimens) in diameter, 6 mm long, peduncles 3-8 mm long, densely congested into terminal and axillary corymbs. Involucres ovate to campanulate, bracts greenish-purplish, 4-5-seriate; the outer very widely elliptic to very widely obovate, rounded at apex, 2-4 mm long, 1.5-2 mm wide, tomentose abaxially, ciliate at margins; the inner lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, acute at apex, 4-5 mm long, 0.5-1 mm wide, sparingly pubescent to glabrous. Receptacles flat, glabrous. Outer florets numerous, corolla filiform, pale greenish white, pinkish toward summit, 3.5-4 mm long, tip 3-lobed; pappus white, slightly shorter than corolla; mature achenes not available for examination. Central florets ca. 20-25; corolla whitish, pinkish toward summit, 4-5 mm long, sparingly glandular hairy at base; anthers obtuse at apex, shortly tailed at base; anthers and style exserted; achenes vestigial as a small, cartilaginous ring" (Peng et al., 1998).

Habitat/ecology:  This 1-2 m tall, fast-growing shrub forms thickets in dry habitats. It is found in Hawai‘i from sea level to 1,000 m elevation. "Common in pastures, forests, roadsides and vacant lots in dryer environments to wet areas.  Displaces forages in pastures and natives in natural areas"  (Motooka et al., 2003).  In New Caledonia, "parfois abondant mais reste localisé et semble être limité au Sud" (MacKee, 1994; p. 37).

"In Taiwan, P. carolinensis is naturalized in disturbed ruderal places of the countryside, often seen on barren mudstone slopes or associated with scrubby vegetation along roads. It occurs at ca. 50-200 m alt. Since the first discovery of this adventive species in Taiwan in 1987, its range has extended considerably on the island "  (Peng et al., 1998).

Propagation:  The seeds are wind-dispersed.

Native range:  A tropical American species, native from Mexico through Central America to northern South America and in the West Indies Islands, now widespread as a rather aggressive weed in many Pacific islands (Stone, 1970; p. 589).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 132666) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 588197) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 594847) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1993) (voucher ID: BISH 663567) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 69) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64754 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 599719) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Hao (Hau) Atoll		? (year unknown)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 589) As Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 438130) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	French Frigate Shoals	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kure Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Laysan Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lehua Island	introduced invasive	Wood, K. R./LeGrande, Maya (2006) (p. 20) Vouchers cited: Flynn et al. 4858 (BISH, PTBG), K.R. Wood 11546 (BISH, PTBG, US)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll		Chock, Alvin K./Hamilton, Jr., Dean C. (1962) (p. 6) Vouchers cited: RAF Nat. Hist. Soc. (Gallagher) J, Hamilton 4 (BISH)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 33)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 33)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 12) Vouchers cited: MacDaniels [1950] (BISH), Fosberg & Stoddart 54888 (US, HAW, K), Fosberg & Walker 30210 (US), Degener & Hatheway 21295 (BISH, US, NY, A), Luomala 27 (BISH)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	introduced	Luomala, Katharine (1951) (p. 174) Voucher cited: Luomala 27
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 10) Voucher specimen collected: Imada 2003-64 (BISH 697679)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (2003) (voucher ID: BISH 697679) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 10) Voucher specimen collected: Imada 2003-15 (BISH 697630)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (2003) (voucher ID: BISH 697630) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 36)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1988) (p. 15)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 583841) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Bikini (Pikinni) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 649608) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	introduced invasive	St. John, Harold (1960) (p. 334) Voucher cited: St. John 23703
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 21) Voucher cited: Fosberg 24405 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 132653) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1975) (voucher ID: BISH 404903) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1975) (voucher ID: BISH 583375) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1975) (voucher ID: BISH 583376) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289) Reported present by Fosberg et al. (1979) but not seen by Whistler and Steele (1999) in their survey of the U.S.-leased islands.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 36) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31170, Fosberg 31208, Fosberg 39492. Not found on this survey and my longer be present.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 21) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31170 (US), Fosberg 31208 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 132654) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 567769) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Rongerik (Roñdik) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 36)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Rongerik (Roñdik) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 607636) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 71)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 99) Pluchea sp.
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 379) Parfois abondante mais reste localisée et semble être limitée au Sud.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 37) Vouchers cited: MacKee 37329, MacKee 37662, MacKee 39313
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Leprédour	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 37) Voucher cited: Veillon 6857
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 289)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 14, 90)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 132663) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G.Don
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 438085) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 8)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced invasive	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 60)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 351, 1863)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Palmyra Atoll	Palmyra Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 33)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1959) (p. 19) Voucher cited: Fosberg 33621
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 15)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 21) Voucher cited: Fosberg 34447 (US)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êfaté (Efete) Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (year unknown) Communication to Aliens listserver.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êfaté (Efete) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 424760) Taxon name on voucher: Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Espirito Santo Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (year unknown) Communication to Aliens listserver.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Peng, Ching-I/Chen, Chih-Huei/Leu, Wen-Pen/Yen, Hsin-Fu (1998) (pp. 287-297)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Comments:  Often found growing and hybridizing with P. indica (Stone, 1970; p. 589).

Widespread but not presently abundant on Guam.

Naturalizing on Tongatapu, Tonga but presently in a limited area as far as could be determined (along Alaivahamama road and between Taufa'ahau Road and the lagoon as far south as the Tongan National Centre) (Space & Flynn, 2001).

Per Bill Sykes (pers. com.), "introduced accidentally to Motu Moananui [Penrhyn Island, Cook Islands] at the time that American engineers built the airstrip in the Second World War." Not common there.

Abundant near American military bases built on Santo and Efate Islands in Vanuatu. (Warea Orapa, communication to Aliens listserver).

This species (alone and together with Pluchea indica seem to be highly correlated with military airfields constructed in the Pacific during World War II.

"Readily hybridizes with Pluchea carolinensis to form an intermediate plant known as Pluchea x fosbergii Cooperr. & Galang where the two species occur together (Whistler & Steele, 1999; pp. 36-37).

Control: 

Chemical: "Sensitive to 1 lb/acre 2,4-D, 0.5 lb/acre dicamba, and 0.25 lb/acre triclopyr. Readily controlled by 0.5 lb/acre triclopyr in drizzle applications. HAVO staff reported control with foliar application of glyphosate at 1% product (Chris Zimmer, HAVO)"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Biological: Some biological control agents have been introduced in Hawai‘i but they have not been effective (Julien, 1992; p. 30).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).

Additional online information about Pluchea carolinensis is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Pluchea carolinensis may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 132653 (St.John, H. 23703).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 132654 (Fosberg, F.R. 31208).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 132663 (Fosberg, F.R. 32015).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 132666 (Fosberg, F.R. 31781).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 567769 (Fosberg, F.R. 31170).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 583841 (St.John, H. 26311).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 438085 (Fosberg, F.R. 47636).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 438130 (Evans, M. 1676).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1975. Voucher specimen #BISH 404903 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 1716).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1975. Voucher specimen #BISH 583375 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 1667).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1975. Voucher specimen #BISH 583376 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 1707).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 424760 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1591).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 588197 (Fosberg, F.R. 59910).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 594847 (Herbst, D.R. 6805).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 599719 (Fosberg, F.R. 64754).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 649608 (Fosberg, F.R. 65140).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 607636 (Herbst, D.R. 9145).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1993. Voucher specimen #BISH 663567 (Florence 12054).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 2003. Voucher specimen #BISH 697630 (C.Imada 2003-15).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 2003. Voucher specimen #BISH 697679 (C.Imada 2003-64).

Chock, Alvin K./Hamilton, Jr., Dean C. 1962. Plants of Christmas Island. Atoll Res. Bull. 90. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 7 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1959. Vegetation and flora of Wake Island. Atoll Research Bulletin 67. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 20 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1988. Vegetation of Bikini Atoll. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 315:1-28.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 393. 60 pp.

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Julien, M. H. (ed.). 1992. Biological control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds (third edition). CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 186 pp.

Luomala, Katharine. 1951. Plants of Canton Island, Phoenix Islands. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 20(11):157-174.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 1998. Mécanismes et gestion des invasions biologiques par des plantes introduites dans des forêts naturales à Hawai‘i et Polynésie Française: une étude de cas [Mechanisms and management of biological invasions by alien plants in Hawaiian and French Polynesian natural forests: a case study]. Dèlégation à la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie Française. Unpublished report.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Orapa, Warea. 0. Warea Orapa, pers. com.

Peng, Ching-I/Chen, Chih-Huei/Leu, Wen-Pen/Yen, Hsin-Fu. 1998. Pluchea Cass. (Asteraceae: Inuleae) in Taiwan. Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin. (1998) 39: 287-297.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

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