Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Family - Poaceae. Common Names(s) - Grain sorghum, Sweet sorghum.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

-3

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

y

1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=1, n=-1

y

1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

6

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)Main center of distribution of cultivated sorghums is in Africa, having been cultivated in Ethiopia for more than 5,000 years; possibly cultivated sorghums were also developed independently in India and China. Forage sorghums introduced in United States about 1850. Now sorghums are widely distributed throughout tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate areas of the world.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

1.02

(1)cultivated and sparingly naturalized along roadsides and in abandoned fields, 20-110 m (2)Occasionally cultivated, sparingly naturalized in Guam

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Stone, B. C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

1.03

(1)Shattercane is an annual weedy sorghum that causes more than fifteen million dollars in lost grain production in Nebraska [weedy type of cultivated S. bicolor an agricultural weed] (2)Furrer and Burnside (1962) indicated that shattercane was becoming a ‘‘serious problem in many parts of Nebraska’’ and was quickly spreading throughout the Midwest from Indiana to Colorado. Shattercane was infesting corn, grain sorghum, castorbean, sugar beet fields, and waste areas. They blamed the spread of shattercane on the introduction of grain sorghum to Nebraska in 1955 and 1956, and farmers switching to continuous corn in place of crop rotations, providing an ideal habitat for the weed. They reported a survey of five corn fields in Nebraska heavily infested with shattercane, causing 15 to 49% yield reductions. They also mentioned other losses including rejected hybrid sorghum seed contaminated with off-types, livestock losses from prussic acid poisoning, and reduced economic returns caused by being forced to switch to lower-value crops. Burnside (1970) reported corn yield reductions of 44 to 72% in shattercane-infested plots compared to plots that were kept weed-free all season in Nebraska. Beckett et al. (1988) reported 22% corn yield reduction from 6.6 shattercane clumps per m of row in Illinois. Vesecky et al. (1973) reported an average grain sorghum yield reduction of about 97% in plots infested with shattercane spaced 7.5 cm apart in the rows compared to weed-free plots. Even the thinnest shattercane population spaced 45 cm apart reduced grain sorghum yields by about 70%. They measured significant reduction in the amount of light reaching into the plant canopy in the shattercane-infested plots as compared to the weed-free plots, and a high correlation between reduction in light reaching the grain sorghum canopy and the reduction in grain yield. Shattercane can also act as an alternate host for pests. Rodriguez-del-Bosque and Rosales-Robles (1992) discovered increased populations of white grub [Pyllophaga crinita (Burmeister)] in corn when shattercane was present in the field. The adults were thought to be either laying eggs more frequently or more attracted to the dense populations of shattercane over corn. Burnside (1968) reported the almost complete loss of soybeans (95 to 99% yield reductions) in shattercane- infested fields as compared to plots kept weedfree all season in Nebraska. Soybean yields in Nebraska were reduced by almost 90% by 12 shattercane plants per m of row and by almost 60% by only two shattercane plants per m of row in another experiment (Fellows and Roeth 1992). They also observed that soybean yield losses began just as the shattercane became taller than the soybeans.

(1)Fellows, G. M. 1990. Shattercane distribution, interference, and economic impact in Nebraska. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Nebraska, Lincoln, NE. (2)Defelice, M. 2006. Shattercane, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench ssp. drummondii (Nees ex Steud.) de Wet ex Davidse—Black Sheep of the Family. Weed Technology 20:1076–1083.

2.01

(1)Main center of distribution of cultivated sorghums is in Africa, having been cultivated in Ethiopia for more than 5,000 years; possibly cultivated sorghums were also developed independently in India and China. Forage sorghums introduced in United States about 1850. Now sorghums are widely distributed throughout tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate areas of the world...Adapted to tropical and subtropical summer rainfall climate with rainfall from 25–125 cm annually; of little importance in more humid areas with higher rainfall. (2)Distribution It probably originated in Ethiopia and has spread to other parts of Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia and the United States.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 10 June 2009] (2)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

2.02

(1)Main center of distribution of cultivated sorghums is in Africa, having been cultivated in Ethiopia for more than 5,000 years; possibly cultivated sorghums were also developed independently in India and China. Forage sorghums introduced in United States about 1850. Now sorghums are widely distributed throughout tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate areas of the world.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 10 June 2009]

2.03

(1)Sweet sorghum is a warm-season crop that tolerates drought and high-temperatures better than many crops, but it does not grow well under low temperatures. Optimal planting times in Florida will vary between locations, but soil temperatures at planting should be above 65 °F. Late planted crops will mature more rapidly, but should be planted early enough to ensure that the crop matures before the first expected killing frost. (2)Sweet sorghum, although a native to the tropics, is also well adapted to temperate regions. Recently, sweet sorghum has been considered in the EU as a potential energy crop, mainly for ethanol production. It is expected to play a similar role in temperate climates to that sugarcane plays in tropical regions, especially Brazil.

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AG298 [Accessed 09 July 2009] (2)Nasir El Bassam. 1998. Energy plant species: their use and impact on environment and development. James & James Ltd., London, UK.

2.04

(1)cultivated and sparingly naturalized along roadsides and in abandoned fields, 20-110 m (2)Occasionally cultivated, sparingly naturalized in Guam (3)Main center of distribution of cultivated sorghums is in Africa, having been cultivated in Ethiopia for more than 5,000 years; possibly cultivated sorghums were also developed independently in India and China. Forage sorghums introduced in United States about 1850. Now sorghums are widely distributed throughout tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate areas of the world.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Stone, B. C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659. (3)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

2.05

(1)Main center of distribution of cultivated sorghums is in Africa, having been cultivated in Ethiopia for more than 5,000 years; possibly cultivated sorghums were also developed independently in India and China. Forage sorghums introduced in United States about 1850. Now sorghums are widely distributed throughout tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate areas of the world.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

3.01

(1)cultivated and sparingly naturalized along roadsides and in abandoned fields, 20-110 m (2)Occasionally cultivated, sparingly naturalized in Guam

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Stone, B. C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

3.02

(1)A roadside, creek and wetland weed in parts of the Kimberley, S. bicolor (grain or cultivated sorghum) is a large tufted annual to 2.5 m tall…It has been collected from verges and disturbed sites of the Kimberley and, occasionally, around Perth. [weed of minor significance, and unclear whether or not it is being controlled]

(1)Hussey, B.M.J., G.J. Keighery, J. Dodd, S.G. Lloyd and R.D. Cousens. 2007. Western Weed. Second Edition. A guide to the weeds of Western Australia. The Weeds Society of Western Australia. Vicoria Park, Western Australia.

3.03

(1)Listed as a weed, but most references refer to shattercane as the weedy form of S. bicolor

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/sorghum_bicolor/ [Accessed 10 July 2009]

3.04

(1)Unlike some proposed high biomass energy crops, sweet sorghum is not a threat to become an invasive weed in Florida.

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AG298 [Accessed 09 July 2009]

3.05

(1)Johnson grass (Sorghum halapense) is a noxious weed of Australia

(1)Parsons, W. T., and Cuthbertson, E. G. 2001. Noxious Weeds of Australia. Second Edition. CSIRO Publishing. Melbourne.

4.01

(1)Summer annual, coarse, erect with much variability in growth characteristics; culms solid or sometimes with spaces in pith, 0.6–5 m tall, depending on variety and growing conditions, 5 to over 30 mm in diameter, either dry at maturity or with sweet insipid juice; leaves broad and coarse, similar in shape to those of corn but shorter and wider; blades glabrous and waxy; sheaths encircle culm and have overlapping margins

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

4.02

(1)Compatibility with other grasses and legumes It is generally grown as a pure crop in commercial grain production. In village crop areas it may be planted in rows alternating with other food or fibre crops in a rotation to spread labour and improve fertility. For forage and silage it is frequently grown with legumes, such as cowpea, to improve the nutritive value for grazing or stored fodder. [no evidence]

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

4.03

(1)Summer annual, coarse, erect with much variability in growth characteristics; culms solid or sometimes with spaces in pith, 0.6–5 m tall, depending on variety and growing conditions, 5 to over 30 mm in diameter, either dry at maturity or with sweet insipid juice; leaves broad and coarse, similar in shape to those of corn but shorter and wider; blades glabrous and waxy; sheaths encircle culm and have overlapping margins

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

4.04

(1)Sorghum is also planted for cattle fodder and other purposes. (2)In Queensland, Australia, the fodder sorghums are used mainly for silage production and the grain sorghums for grain. The fodder sorghums, however, are also used for autumn grazing by dairy and beef cattle to fill in a feed shortage between summer and winter grazing crops. The grain sorghums are valuable for grazing after the grain has been harvested and the crop residues (stubble, dropped seed-heads and regrowth, plus weeds) provide good autumn and winter roughage...Palatability The sorghums are all very palatable, especially in the young and flowering stages.

(1)http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantqrs/sorghum.htm [Accessed 10 June 2009] (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/pf000319.HTM [Accessed 10 June 2009]

4.05

(1)Main deficiencies Its tendency to be toxic.

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

4.06

(1)Major diseases reported on sorghums include the following: Cercospora sorghi, Colletotrichum graminicola (Anthracnose of leaves and stems), Helminthosporium turcicum (leaf blight), Macrophomina phaseoli (charcoal rot), Periconia circinata (milo disease), Phyllachora sorghi, Phyllosticta sorghi, Puccinis purpurea (rust), Ramulispora sorghi (sooty strip), Sclerospora sorghi (downy mildew), Sorosporium ehrenbergii, Sphacelia sorghi, Sphacelotheca sorghi (covered smut), Sph. cruenta (loose smut), Sph. reiliana (head smut). Plants are also severely attacked by various species of Striga (S. lutea, S. hermontheca, S. senegalensis, S. densiflora). Nematodes isolated from sorghum include the following species: Helicotylenchus cavenessi, H. dihystera, H. pseudorobustus, Hoplolaimus pararobustus, Meloidogyne javanica, Peltamigratus nigeriensis, Pratylenchus brachyurus, P. zeae, Quinisulcius acutus, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema cavenessi, S. clathricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus acutus, and T. parvus.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

4.07

(1)Allergenic Components: Pollen; Allergenic Properties: Respiratory [no evidence that pollen from this grass causes widespread allergies]

(1)http://www.weather.com/outlook/health/allergies/common/allergens/OH-allergen-1313?from=allergy_allergenstate_more [Accessed 12 June 2009]

4.08

[No evidence, but as a grass, could probably increase fire hazards in certain situations]

4.09

(1)Response to light Sorghum requires full harnessing of incoming radiation for high yields of grain and forage, and does not grow well in shade.

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

4.10

(1)Adapted to wide range of soils varying from light loams to heavy clays; thrives best on light, easily worked soils of high fertility, with moderate to high available water, with erosion not a problem. Moderately well-drained soils are suitable for sorghums. Small amounts of alkali in sand reduces performance considerably. Tolerance to salinity is moderate. Prefers moderately acid soil; pH down to 5.7 does not drastically affect production.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

4.11

(1)Robust annuals; culms 10-30 dm tall, nodes puberulent to short-pilose.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.12

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

5.02

(1)Poaceae

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

5.03

(1)Poaceae

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

5.04

(1)Sorghum is an annual crop with considerable variability in growth characteristics. Heights range from 1.5 ft for grain sorghum types to over 16 ft tall for sweet and forage types. The thickness of stalks also varies, ranging between 0.5 to 1.5 inches. Brace or prop roots often grow from the lower nodes. Juice content of stalks at maturity is typically lower in grain and forage types compared to sweet types.

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AG298 [Accessed 09 July 2009]

6.01

(1)Main center of distribution of cultivated sorghums is in Africa, having been cultivated in Ethiopia for more than 5,000 years; possibly cultivated sorghums were also developed independently in India and China. Forage sorghums introduced in United States about 1850. Now sorghums are widely distributed throughout tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate areas of the world...Adapted to tropical and subtropical summer rainfall climate with rainfall from 25–125 cm annually; of little importance in more humid areas with higher rainfall. [no evidence]

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009]

6.02

(1)Seeds are produced by self-pollination from a panicle that emerges at the top of the plant and contains both the male and female inflorescences. Sorghum seeds are small, round and may be white, yellow, brown, or red in color. Although sorghum is predominately self-pollinating, hybrids and crosses can be produced using male-sterile plants as the maternal parent.

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AG298 [Accessed 09 July 2009]

6.03

(1)Abstract:  The role of crop-to-weed gene flow is often controversial and overlooked. As a consequence, the likelihood of spontaneous crop-to-weed hybridization in most crop/weed systems is generally unknown. The lack of data relating to the formation of crop/weed hybrids has particular contemporary significance when considering the wide scale commercial release of transgenic crop plants and the potential for escape of engineered genes via crop-to-weed hybridization We created an experimental system whereby we could examine the incidence and rate of spontaneous crop-to-weed hybridization between Sorghum bicolor and S halepense, johnsongrass. An isozyme marker was used to identify hybrid plants through progeny testing Incidence and rate of hybridization were highly variable with respect to weed distance from the crop, location of the study site, and year the study was performed. Crop/weed hybrids were detected at distances of 0 5-100 m from the crop Interspecific hybridization can and does occur in this system at a substantial and measurable rate. Transgenes introduced into crop sorghum can be expected to have the opportunity to escape cultivation through interspecific hybridization with johnsongrass. Traits that prove to be beneficial to weeds possessing them can be expected to persist and spread. This is an issue that needs to be addressed when developing biosafety guidelines for the commercial release of transgenic sorghums (2)Johnsongrass (S. halepense) will sometimes cross naturally with S. bicolor to produce vigorous, rhizomatous hybrids.

(1)Arriola, P. E. and N. C. Ellstrand. 1996. Crop-To-Weed Gene Flow in the Genus Sorghum (Poaceae): Spontaneous Interspecific Hybridization between Johnsongrass, Sorghum halepense, and Crop Sorghum, S. Bicolor. American Journal of Botany 83(9): 1153-1159. (2)Sotomayor-Rios, A. and W. D. Pitman. 2000. Tropical forage plants: development and use. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

6.04

(1)Seeds are produced by self-pollination from a panicle that emerges at the top of the plant and contains both the male and female inflorescences. Sorghum seeds are small, round and may be white, yellow, brown, or red in color. Although sorghum is predominately self-pollinating, hybrids and crosses can be produced using male-sterile plants as the maternal parent.

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AG298 [Accessed 09 July 2009]

6.05

(1)Genetics and reproduction 2n=20 (Fedorov, 1974). They cross-pollinate readily, thus seed-producing crops should be isolated by a distance of about 1 km from others.

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

6.06

(1)Ability to spread naturally: Very low, except for loose seed.

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

6.07

(1)Sorghum is an annual crop with considerable variability in growth characteristics. Heights range from 1.5 ft for grain sorghum types to over 16 ft tall for sweet and forage types.

(1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AG298 [Accessed 09 July 2009]

7.01

(1)Caryopsis reddish brown to dark brown, spreading the glumes apart at maturity, broadly ovoid to globose, ca. 4 mm long, ca. 3.5 mm wide, somewhat dorsiventrally compressed, styles persistent [no means of external attachment]

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

7.02

(1)Though sorghum is used largely for forage in the US, it is very important in the world's human diet, with over 300 million people dependent on it (Bukantis, 1980). Grown for grain, forage, syrup and sugar, and industrial uses of stems and fibers. Grain sorghum is a staple cereal in hot dry tropics, the threshed grain ground into a wholesome flour. Stalks used as animal feed. Important summer fodder where temperatures are high and rainfall insufficient for corn. Most important for silage or green soiling, or for hay when grown irrigated in very dry areas. Pearled grain cooked like rice or ground into flour. Sorghum, with large juicy stems containing as much as 10% sucrose, used in manufacture of syrup; sugar can be manufactured from sorghum. Broomcorn used for making brooms. The seed is used as food, in brewing "kiffir beer", the kiffir corn malt and cornmeal is fermented to make Leting (a sour mash), the pith is eaten, and the sweet culm chewed (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Arubans make porridge and muffins from sorghum meal. Parched seed are used as coffee substitutes or adulterants (Morton, 1981). (2)The term ‘sweet sorghum’ is used to describe varieties of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), a summer annual, that has a high concentration of soluble sugars in the plant sap or juice. This crop is attractive because of the easy accessibility of readily fermentable sugars combined with very high yields of green biomass. In all varieties, the primary carbohydrate is sucrose, with variable amounts of reducing reducible sugars and starch. Similar to sugarcane, the sap of sweet sorghum is extracted by milling. Once extracted, the sugars from sweet sorghum can be easily fermented to produce ethanol. Other products from sweet sorghum include syrup, molasses, and crystal sugar.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sorghum_bicolor.html [Accessed 02 July 2009] (2)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/AG298 [Accessed 09 July 2009]

7.03

(1)Contamination of crop seed lots by weed seed and rapid retrogression of crop varieties of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (sorghum) to the wild progenitor of the species may also contribute to the persistence of S. bicolor. [sweet sorghum is the crop that is being contaminated by the wild relative, shattercane]

(1)Teo-Sherrell, C. P. A. and D. A. Mortensen. 2000. Fates of buried Sorghum bicolor ssp. drummondii seed. Weed Science, 48:549–554.

7.04

(1)No adaptations for long-distance wind dispersal [although short distances may be possible]

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

7.05

(1)Shattercane seeds can also float, allowing irrigation and runoff water to disperse viable seeds greater distances [unknown if cultivated sweet sorghum seeds are also able to be dispersed by water]

(1)Defelice, M. 2006. Shattercane, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench ssp. drummondii (Nees ex Steud.) de Wet ex Davidse—Black Sheep of the Family. Weed Technology 20:1076–1083.

7.06

(1)Birds can be a serious problem, and an effort is usually made to scare them from the field when the grain is ripening.

(1)Smith, C. W. and R. A. Frederiksen. 2000. Sorghum: origin, history, technology, and production. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

7.07

(1)No means of external attachment

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

7.08

(1)Table 2 Species germinating from white-tailed deer feces collected at two sites, showing totals, maximum germinations per pellet group, and frequency [table includes S. bicolor]

(1)Myers, J. A., M. Vellend, S. Gardescu and P. L. Marks. 2004. Seed dispersal by white-tailed deer: implications for long-distance dispersal, invasion, and migration of plants in eastern North America. Oecologia 139: 35–44.

8.01

(1)Number of seeds per kg. 28 600 to 61 000 in the United States. [unknown in natural settings; most seed counts come from cultivated fields, and natural seed production typically refers to shattercane]

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 10 July 2009]

8.02

(1)Dormancy: Sorghum seed shows dormancy for the- first month after harvest.

(1)http://www.fao.org/AG/aGp/agpc/doc/Gbase/data/Pf000319.HTM [Accessed 02 July 2009]

8.03

(1) [Weedy Sorghum's are controlled by herbicides, so assuming cultivated sorghum can be controlled as well] Abstract: Growers from three counties in Virginia have recently experienced difficulty controlling shattercane in corn with acetolactate synthase (ALS)–inhibiting herbicides. Seed was collected from these locations and from a susceptible biotype and tested for resistance to imazethapyr, imazapyr, and nicosulfuron in greenhouse trials. Seedlings from these locations were also treated with glufosinate and glyphosate. Greenhouse experiments indicated that one of the four shattercane biotypes was resistant to ALS-inhibiting herbicides. Effective control of the resistant biotype was possible with glufosinate or glyphosate. Field experiments were conducted in 2003 and 2004 to determine the most effective herbicide program utilizing herbicide-tolerant/-resistant corn hybrids for the control of shattercane. Early postemergence (EP) and late postemergence (LP) applications of imazethapyr plus imazapyr or EP nicosulfuron did not control shattercane, and yield from the imidazolinonetolerant (IT) hybrid was equivalent between these treatments and was equivalent to yield from the weedy control (WC). At 23 wk after planting (WAP), EP applications of glyphosate controlled shattercane 71 and 75% compared to only 21 and 66% with EP applications of glufosinate in 2003 and 2004, respectively. In both years, LP applications of glufosinate or glyphosate controlled shattercane better than did EP applications of glufosinate or glyphosate. Treatment timing with respect to corn yield within either the glufosinate-resistant (LL) or glyphosate-resistant (RR) corn hybrid was critical. EP treatments of glufosinate or glyphosate resulted in yields that were equivalent to yield from the weed-free control (WFC) of each hybrid. LP treatments of glufosinate or glyphosate, however, resulted in yields that were equivalent to only 90 and 91% of yield from the WFC of each hybrid, respectively...Generally, no difference in shattercane control between glufosinate and glyphosate occurred at the LP treatment timing. Although LP applications of glufosinate or glyphosate controlled shattercane better than EP applications, it is recommended that early shattercane competition with corn be reduced through EP applications. Results indicate that by delaying the herbicide application, corn yields are reduced in comparison to treatments applied EP. (2)Shattercane can be controlled in corn with several postemergence- applied herbicides including nicosulfuron {2- [[[[(4,6-dimethoxy-2-pyrimidinyl)amino]carbonyl]amino] sulfonyl]-N,N-dimethyl-3-pyridinecarboxamide}, primisulfuron {methyl 2-[[[[[4,6-bis(difluoromethoxy)-2- pyrimidinyl]amino]carbonyl]amino]sulfonyl]benzoic acid, sethoxydim {2-[1-(ethoxyimino)butyl]-5-[2-(ethylthio) propyl]-3-hydroxy-2-cyclohexen-1-one} in sethoxydimtolerant corn, glufosinate [2-amino-4-(hydroxymethylphosphinyl) butanoic acid] in glufosinate-tolerant corn, imazethapyr {2-[4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)- 5-oxo-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-5-ethyl-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid} in imidazolinone-tolerant corn, and glyphosate [N- (phosphonomethyl)glycine] in glyphosate-tolerant corn (Johnson and Kendig 1999). However, field research in Missouri (Bradley 1999) has shown that under cool weather conditions, shattercane control with glyphosate plus atrazine tank mix was significantly less than with glyphosate alone. Other researchers have also noted this antagonistic interaction on corn (Appleby and Somabhi 1978), grain sorghum (Stahlman and Phillips 1979b), quackgrass [Elytrigia repens (L.) Nevski], common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Weber in Wiggers), and Canada thistle [Circium arvense (L.) Scop.] (Selleck and Baird 1981) (3)Modern herbicides control johnsongrass at a cost of $12-20 per acre (1 acre = 4047 m2); however, none can kill johnsongrass without damaging closely related sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench., 2N = 2X = 20], grown on 8-14 million acres in the southern plains of the United States (M. Chandler, personal communication).

(1)King, S. R. and E. S. Hagwood, Jr. 2006. Herbicide Programs for the Control of ALS-Resistant Shattercane (Sorghum bicolor) in Corn (Zea mays). Weed Technology 20: 416–421. (2)Bradley, P. R., W. G. Johnson, and R. J. Smeda. 2000. Response of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) to Atrazine, Ammonium Sulfate, and Glyphosate. Weed Technology 14: 15–18. (3)Paterson, A. H., K. F. Schertz, Y-R Lin, S-C Llu, and Y-L Chang. 1995. The weediness of wild plants: Molecular analysis of genes influencing dispersal and persistence of johnsongrass, Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 92: 6127-6131.

8.04

(1)Sweet forage sorghum will stand a series of grazings where soil moisture and the temperature remain adequate, new branches and tillers being produced. Stalks may become thick and fibrous in the fodder types, and the forage or grass sorghums, such as Sudan grass, make better grazing. [can withstand grazing and mowing]

(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/pf000319.HTM [Accessed 10 June 2009]

8.05

Unknown