Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H. Scholz. Family - Poaceae. Common Name - Japanese millet. Synonym(s) - Panicum esculentum A. Braun, Echinochloa utilis Ohwi & Yab.,

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y

-3

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y

1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

n

0

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

1

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

y

1

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

4.12

Forms dense thickets

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

5.02

Grass

y

1

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y

1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y

1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

Total score:

8

Notes

Reference

1.01

(1) Echinochloa esculenta is cultivated both for grain and forage, like E. frumentacea, and the two are most easily distinguished by the color of the seeding heads. Echinochloa esculenta is thought to be a cultivated derivative of E. crusgalli that arose in China, Japan, and Korea. (2) Echinochloa esculenta(syn. Echinochloa utilis Ohwi & Yabuno), is a species of Echinochloa that is cultivated on a small scale in Japan, China, and Korea, both as a food and for animal fodder. It is grown in areas where the land is unsuitable or the climate too cool for paddy rice cultivation. However, the development of rice varieties that can withstand cold has led to a sharp decline in its cultivation of sawa millet, in favor of rice. The earliest records of the domesticated form date to 2000 BC from the Jōmon period of Japan. (3) Echinochloa cultigens believed to have originated from the wild E. colona (L.) Link in East Asia and in the Old World tropics were formerly collectively called E. frumentacea Link. However careful morphological and, more importantly, genomic analyses in the early 1960s led to the conclusion that E, crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. is ancestral to part of these cultigens, recognized as a second collective species, E. utilis Ohwi & Yabuno (in Ohwi, 1962; Yabuno, 1962, 1966). The origin of these two species or cultivar groups is allopatric with E, frumentacea, the Indian barnyard millet, having arisen from E. colona in India (and Africa?), and E. utilis, the Japanese barnyard millet, from E. crus-galli in Japan, Korea and China. Cultivation of E. utilis is presently declining and it is largely a relict crop (Kobayashi & Sakamoto, 1990), but nevertheless a valuable fodder grass also apt for human consumption. It is mainly
used in northern countries, e.g. the eastern parts of Russia and U.S.A. (Cvelev, 1976; Schultze-Motel in Mansfeld, 1986). In Europe and in many other parts of the world E. utilis occurs as a casual. (4)The earliest records of the domesticated form date to 2000 BC from the Jōmon period of Japan.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=250070745 [21 Nov 2007] (2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinochloa_esculenta [21 Nov 2007] (3) Scholz, H. 1992. Echinochloa esculenta, comb. nov.: The Correct Name of the Japanese Barnyard Millet (Gramineae). Taxon 41(3): 522-523. (4)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinochloa_esculenta

1.02

(1) Naturalised. N.: scattered throughout; S.: Nelson City, Blenheim, Christchurch; K. Stony waste land, coastal sands, roadsides (mostly from seed spillages), crops. (2) Listed as naturalized in a number of other locations.

(1) Edgar, E. and H. E. Connor. 2000. Flora of New Zealand Volume: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand. (2) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/echinochloa_esculenta/ [26 Nov 2007]

1.03

No evidence

2.01

(1) DISTRIBUTION Africa: southern tropical. Asia-temperate: Soviet far east, China, and eastern Asia. Australasia: Australia and New Zealand. Pacific: southwestern and north-central. (2) Temperate distribution of cultivation [this is primarily a temperate species]

(1) Clayton, W.D., Harman, K.T. and Williamson, H. (2006 onwards). GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora. http://www.kew.org/data/grasses-db.html. [21 Nov 2007] (2)http://zipcodezoo.com/Plants/E/Echinochloa_esculenta.asp

2.02

2.03

(1) Echinochloa esculenta: Warm season legume cover crop. Summer annual used primarily for erosion control and organic matter, also good forage. Rapid early growth, can be sown early. Good alternative to Sudangrass in cool summers; reaches 4' or more with large, broad leaves. Good weed-smothering abilities. Drought tolerant, but also does well in cold, wet soils; can be flood irrigated. [appears to be limited in suitability to temperate areas, but may be wide-ranging within the temperate zone]

(1) http://www.groworganic.com/item_SCN111_Japanese_Millet_Lb.html?welcome=T [26 Nov 2007]

2.04

(1) DISTRIBUTION Africa: southern tropical. Asia-temperate: Soviet far east, China, and eastern Asia. Australasia: Australia and New Zealand. Pacific: southwestern and north-central. [not native or naturalized range]

(1) Clayton, W.D., Harman, K.T. and Williamson, H. (2006 onwards). GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora. http://www.kew.org/data/grasses-db.html. [21 Nov 2007]

2.05

(1) Distribution and occurrence: Cultivated for forage and grain and sometimes used as a soil stabilizer, common in birdseed mixtures, often escaped from cultivation. Originated in eastern Asia. NSW subdivisions: *NC, *CC, *NT, *CT, *ST, *NWS, *CWS, *SWS, *NWP, *SWP Other Australian states: *Qld *Vic. *Tas. *W.A. *S.A. (2) Naturalised. N.: scattered throughout; S.: Nelson City, Blenheim, Christchurch; K. Stony waste land, coastal sands, roadsides (mostly from seed spillages), crops. (3) Introduced to California, Hawaii and Missouri

(1) http://aussiealgae.org/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Echinochloa~esculenta [26 Nov 2007] (2) Edgar, E. and H. E. Connor. 2000. Flora of New Zealand Volume: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand. (3) http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch?keywordquery=
Echinochloa+esculenta&mode=sciname&submit.x=25&submit.y=11 [26 Nov 2007]

3.01

(1) Naturalised. N.: scattered throughout; S.: Nelson City, Blenheim, Christchurch; K. Stony waste land, coastal sands, roadsides (mostly from seed spillages), crops.

(1) Edgar, E. and H. E. Connor. 2000. Flora of New Zealand Volume: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand.

3.02

No evidence of impacts (1) Detrimental: Weed of irrigation crops and irrigation channels [No description of impacts]

(1) http://herbiguide.net/Portals/0/Descriptions/Weeds/Japanese_Millet.htm [26 Nov 2007]

3.03

No evidence of impacts (1) Detrimental: Weed of irrigation crops and irrigation channels [No description of impacts] (2) John Hosking, NSW Department of Agriculture, Weed Database 30 April 2003 (agricultural weed, naturalised) [No description of impacts]

(1) http://herbiguide.net/Portals/0/Descriptions/Weeds/Japanese_Millet.htm [26 Nov 2007] (2)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/echinochloa_esculenta/ [26 Nov 2007]

3.04

No evidence of impacts. (1) Experiments examining the effectiveness of seeding Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta) to reduce the impact of purple loosestrife recruitment have shown mixed results [81,140]. In addition to providing competition against purple loosestrife seedlings, Japanese millet may be used by waterfowl and is thought to represent a minimal threat of invasiveness, although it is not native to North America [129]. (2) Environmental Weed List Victoria. Supplied by Weedmanager.Net (Source not cited but possibly drawn from Carr et al. Environmental Weeds of Victoria) (environmental weed) [No description of negative impacts].

(1) http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/lytsal/all.html [26 Nov 2007] (2) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/echinochloa_esculenta/ [26 Nov 2007]

3.05

(1) A workshop on Echinochloa control was held on 21 May 2001 at the Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing, China under the sponsorship of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)...Repeated use of herbicides with the same mode of action resulted in resistance in many key weed species, such as E. colona in Central and South America and E. crusgalli populations in USA to propanil, and (iii) E. colona, E. crus-galli, red and weedy rices are the most noxious weed species in rice.

(1) http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPP/IPM/Weeds/weed_man/Echniw.pdf [26 Nov 2007] (2) Talbert, R.E. and N. R. Burgos. 2006. History and Management of Herbicide-resistant Barnyardgrass (Echinochloa Crus-galli) in Arkansas Rice. Weed Technology 21(2): 324–331.

4.01

(1) Annual. Culms robust, erect, 1–1.5 m tall. Leaf sheaths smooth and glabrous; leaf blades linear, 20–50 × 1.2–2.5 cm, glabrous, margins thickened and wavy. Inflorescence erect, lanceolate, 10–30 cm, axis robust, scabrous along edges and with tubercle-based hairs; racemes 2–6 cm, robust, usually branched, closely spaced and overlapping. Spikelets purplish, tardily deciduous,plump, ovate or obovate-elliptic, 3.5–4 mm, hispid along veins with tubercle-based hairs; lower glume 1/3 as long as spikelet, acute; upper glume slightly shorter than spikelet; lower lemma herbaceous, sterile, acute or with a 0.5–2 cm awn; upper lemma 2.8–3.5 mm. Caryopsis long persistent, eventually falling.

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=250070745 [21 Nov 2007]

4.02

No evidence, but related species demonstrate allelopathy (1) The allelopathy of a serious weed, barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.), was investigated. Root exudates of young barnyard grass showed allelopathic effects and plant-selective activity and inhibited root elongation of all plants tested.

(1) Yamamoto, T., K. Yokotani-Tomita, S. Kosemura, S. Yamamura, K. Yamada and K. Hasegawa. 1999. Allelopathic Substance Exuded from a Serious Weed, Germinating Barnyard Grass ( Echinochloa crus-galli L.), Roots. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 18(2): 65-67.

4.03

No evidence.

4.04

(1) excellent palatability, makes good hay and silage, grown for grazing and fodder, cultivated for forage and grain. (2) Dual purpose millets:  Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta) The main advantage over other forages is its ability to provide quick feed in spring. Japanese millet has superior cold tolerance to the other millets and forage sorghums, and this often enables it to be sown earlier in spring. Rapid early growth under favourable conditions will usually allow grazing 4-6 weeks after planting; ideally when the crop is 25-40cm high. While feed quality is high, quick maturity and relatively poor recovery from grazing usually means that Japanese millet yield is lower than for the other summer forage crops. 

(1) Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. (2) http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fieldcrops/6799.html [26 Nov 2007]

4.05

Possibly (1) excellent palatability, makes good hay and silage, grown for grazing and fodder, cultivated for forage and grain. (2) Toxicity: Can usually be grazed at any growth stage, but one suspected case of toxicity has been recorded. It may contain toxic levels of nitrate. (3) Facial eczema, an important photosensitivity disease of livestock, is caused by toxins produced by the fungus Pithomyces chartarum, but photosensitisation has been caused here by the grasses Japanese millet, Echinochloa esculenta and Panicum miliaceum, broomcorn millet.

(1) Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. (2) http://herbiguide.net/Portals/0/Descriptions/Weeds/Japanese_Millet.htm [26 Nov 2007] (3) Allan, H. H. 1982. Flora of New Zealand. Volume 1. Indigenous Tracheophyta. Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Filicopsida, Gymnospermae, Dicotyledons. First electronic edition, Landcare Research, June 2004. Transcr. A.D. Wilton and I.M.L. Andres. http://FloraSeries.LandcareResearch.co.nz. [27 Nov 2007]

4.06

(1) Japanese and Shirohie millets have no major disease problems, while Panorama millet shows good tolerance to head blast. (2) Diseases: Anthrachose, Rhizoctonia

(1) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/xchg/dpi/hs.xsl/26_3519_ENA_Print.htm [26 Noc 2007] (2) http://www.sws.uiuc.edu/data/altcrops/CropReq.asp?
crop=344&suitVal=3&c=161&fp=cntyresults [27 Nov 2007]

4.07

No evidence.

4.08

Don't know [flammable grass, but it is domesticated and behavior in natural ecosystems unknown]

4.09

(1) Light Intensity: Bright

(1) http://www.sws.uiuc.edu/data/altcrops/CropReq.asp?
crop=344&suitVal=3&c=161&fp=cntyresults [27 Nov 2007]

4.10

(1) prefers sandy loams to clay loams, coastal sands, stony wastelands (2) Suited to medium and heavy clay soils provided establishment conditions are satisfactory (non-crusting soils). These millets are relatively waterlogging tolerant and prefer high fertility. Suited to irrigation, and can tolerate moderate levels of soil salinity.

(1) Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/xchg/dpi/hs.xsl/26_3519_ENA_Print.htm [26 Nov 2007]

4.11

Possibly (1) Warm season legume cover crop. Summer annual used primarily for erosion control and organic matter, also good forage. Rapid early growth, can be sown early. Good alternative to Sudangrass in cool summers; reaches 4' or more with large, broad leaves. Good weed-smothering abilities.

(1) http://www.groworganic.com/item_SCN111_Japanese_Millet_Lb.html?welcome=T [26 Nov 2007]

4.12

Growth form does not impede movement

5.01

Mostly terrestrial species, but can tolerate wet soils (1) Drought tolerant, but also does well in cold, wet soils; can be flood irrigated. (2) Census methods, habitat use, and abundance of King Rails, Soras, and Virginia Rails were studied at Cheyenne Bottoms in Barton County, Kansas during 1974. Dikes, roads, and canals had been constructed at this site to allow water-level control. The marsh was divided into five pools. About one-third of the marsh was drained each summer. The drained portion was seeded to Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta). The marsh was reflooded just before fall migration began. Water depths were increased throughout the winter months to attain a full marsh depth of 46 cm.

(1)http://www.groworganic.com/item_SCN111_Japanese_Millet_Lb.html?welcome=T [26 Nov 2007] (2) http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wetbird/sora/sorasurv.htm [27 Nov 2007]

5.02

Poaceae

5.03

Poaceae: not a nitrogen fixing woody plant.

5.04

(1) Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H. Scholz Japanese millet
Symbol: ECES
Group: Monocot
Family: Poaceae
Duration: Annual
Growth Habit: Graminoid
U.S. Nativity: Introduced

(1) http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ECES [27 Nov 2007]

6.01

No evidence of reproductive failure in native or introduced habitat.

6.02

(1) Reproduction: By seed. Life cycle: Annual. Seed is sown in spring and summer when soil temperatures are greater than 160C. It can often be grazed within 6 weeks of sowing. Harvested for silage at head peeping stage, hay a little later or grain as soon as it is ripe and before it shatters.

(1) http://herbiguide.net/Portals/0/Descriptions/Weeds/Japanese_Millet.htm [26 Nov 2007]

6.03

(1) Morphologically polymorphic E. crus-galli, E. oryzoides, and the domesticated E. esculenta, which are cross-compatible and whose hybrids are fertile (Yabuno 1962, 1966, 1984), showed the same sequence in the three noncoding noncoding regions, although South American E. crus-galli showed two nucleotide substitutions compared to the Asian accessions.

(1) Yamaguchi, H., A. Utano, K. Yasuda, A. Yano and A. Soejima. 2005. A molecular phylogeny of wild and cultivated Echinochloa in East Asia inferred from non-coding region sequences of trnT-L-F. Weed Biology and Management 5: 210–218.

6.04

Other members of genus are self-compatible (1) Self -pollination occurs in the buds of Echinochloa crusgalli, Eragrostis cilianensis, E. pectinacea, and Trisetum spicatum, although the anthers and stigmas may subsequently become exserted.

(1) Cruden, R.W. 1977. Pollen-Ovule Ratios: A Conservative Indicator of Breeding Systems in Flowering Plants. Evolution 31(1): 32-46.

6.05

(1) Wind-pollinated Plants….Echinochloa

(1) Grant, V. 1949. Pollination Systems as Isolating Mechanisms in Angiosperms. Evolution 3(1): 82-97.

6.06

Don't know

6.07

(1) Approx. days to flower: 60

(1) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/xchg/dpi/hs.xsl/26_3519_ENA_Print.htm [26 Noc 2007]

7.01

(1) Abstract: Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H. Scholz (= E. utilis Ohwi and Yabuno) was reported for the first time in Poland in 1993 from a few localities in Cracow and its surroundings (southern Poland). It was found on gravelly-sandy alluvial deposits in the Vistula river channel in plant communities of the alliance Bidention. The seeds of this species, which is cultivated in East Asia, are a frequent ingredient of bird-seed mixtures and were probably thus introduced to the alluvia. The main site where E. esculenta grew most abundantly (some 100 individuals) was downstream, a short distance from the outlet of the municipal sewage into the Vistula river. It is very likely that the seeds formed part of the sewage deposit. A small number of E. esculenta plants was still present at the site in 1994 and 1995.

(1) Pacyna, A. and J. Guzik. 1997. Echinochloa esculenta (Poaceae): A new alien plant in Poland. Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica 42 (2) : 265-273.

7.02

(1) Echinochloa esculenta is cultivated both for grain and forage, like E. frumentacea, and the two are most easily distinguished by the color of the seeding heads. Echinochloa esculenta is thought to be a cultivated derivative of E. crusgalli that arose in China, Japan, and Korea. [Dispersed intentionally as food and forage] (2) The seeds of this species, which is cultivated in East Asia, are a frequent ingredient of bird-seed mixtures and were probably thus introduced to the alluvia. The main site where E. esculenta grew most abundantly (some 100 individuals) was downstream, a short distance from the outlet of the municipal sewage into the Vistula river. It is very likely that the seeds formed part of the sewage deposit. A small number of E. esculenta plants was still present at the site in 1994 and 1995 [Dispersed in bird-seed mixtures]

(1) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=250070745 [27 Nov 2007] (2) Pacyna, A. and J. Guzik. 1997. Echinochloa esculenta (Poaceae): A new alien plant in Poland. Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica 42 (2) : 265-273.

7.03

(1) A survey conducted by Charles Sturt University showed barnyard grass to be present on more than 90% of NSW rice farms. This weed is also the most prevalent in rice delivered to the silos. It remains, therefore, a major impediment to rice productivity. A previous project (UCS-25A) detected four species of Echinochloa (barnyard grass) among the seventy samples collected. This survey found five species of Echinochloa among the 207 samples from which the species present could be accurately identified. The vast majority of samples from both sample sources were E. crus-galli (barnyard grass), either as a pure sample or with another species present Two of the five species (E. esculenta and E. inundata) identified from this survey were not detected in the previous survey while one found in the previous survey (E. microstachya) was not detected in this project. The three most common species from the previous survey, E. crus-galli, E. oryzoides and E. colona, were also the most common species in this survey.

(1) Pratley, J.E. and J.C Broster. 2004. Influence of species on efficiency of barnyard grass control. A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. RIRDC Publication No 04/010. RIRDC Project No UCS-28A. http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/RIC/04-010.pdf [27 Nov 2007]

7.04

no information available. [domesticated plant has large seeds]

7.05

Probably, as other members of genus are water dispersed (1) Echinochloa oryzicola has the largest seeds (6–4 mg a seed) and E. crus-galli var. praticola, the smallest (about 1 mg).Although dispersed by paddy water, humans and machinery, the seeds of E. oryzicola shattered from the parent plants in the field and buried in the soil are the main source of propagation. (2) Species of Echinochloa typically grow in aquatic or moist situations. Several have become widespread weeds, especially of irrigated crops, and two are sometimes cultivated as minor cereals.

(1) Yamasue, Y. 2001. Strategy of Echinochloa oryzicola Vasing. for survival in flooded rice. Weed Biology and Management 1: 28–36. (2) http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=111218 [27 Nov 2007]

7.06

(1) Seeds eaten by seed-eating birds [Granivores consume and digest seeds]

(1) Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL.

7.07

(1) Description: fodder for Harvester ants (granivor). Content: Japan hirse (Echinochloa esculenta)

(1)http://www.antstore.net/shop/product_info.php/language/en/info/p1545_Japanhirse--Echinochloa-esculenta--10g.html [27 Nov 2007]

7.08

Don't know (1) Seeds eaten by seed-eating birds [Granivores consume and digest seeds]

(1) Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL.

8.01

Probably, but no information available.

8.02

Don't know

8.03

(1) Abstract: Weed seed samples were collected from across the rice growing regions of southern New South Wales, Australia and tested against a relevant range of commercial herbicides (bensulfuron, thiobencarb, benzofenap, MCPA, propanil, clomazone and molinate) to establish benchmark levels of resistance for each weed and herbicide combination. Approximately 50% of dirty Dora (Cyperus difformis), 40% of starfruit (Damasonium minus) and 38% of arrowhead (Sagittaria montevidensis) samples were resistant to bensulfuron. All dirty Dora, arrowhead and starfruit samples were susceptible to all the other herbicides tested. No barnyard grass samples were resistant to any of herbicides tested. A total of 6 barnyard grass species (barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), awnless barnyard grass (E. colona), hairy millet (E. oryzoides), prickly barnyard grass (E. microstachya), Japanese millet (E. esculenta) and channel millet (E. inundata)) were detected. Four species were collected during the first survey and 5 in the second. Three of the 6 species were present in both surveys. In a number of the samples, 2 different species were present. These species had slightly different rates of germination, resulting in slightly different growth stages of the weeds at the time of herbicide application. Where mixed populations occur in the field, this is of major importance when dealing with any herbicides that have a narrow range of growth stages for effective application. At present, herbicide resistance in weeds of rice appears to be confined to bensulfuron. However it remains important for farmers to implement appropriate herbicide resistance management to protect the viability of the herbicide options.

(1) Broster, J. C., Pratley, J. E., Flower, G. E., Flower, R. 2004. Determining the extent of herbicide resistance in the rice growing regions of southern Australia. In Sindel, B. M., Johnson, S. B. (eds.). Weed management: balancing people, planet, profit. 14th Australian Weeds Conference, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia, 6-9 September 2004

8.04

Don't know

8.05

Don't know