Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavón) Oken. Family - Boraginaceae. Common Names(s) - Cypre, Spanish elm, Ecuador laurel. Synonym(s) - Cerdana alliodora Ruiz & Pavón.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4+

-1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

8

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)Breeding research has been conducted, but no evidence of extreme modification through domestication.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)C. alliodora is the most widespread species in the genus, occurring naturally from northern Mexico through Central and South America to Paraguay, southern Brazil and northern Argentina (27°N-25°S; Boshier and Lamb, 1997). C. alliodora is also found on most of the Caribbean Islands from Cuba to Trinidad, but is almost certainly not native to Jamaica (Johnston, 1950). As a successful colonizer of disturbed sites after forest clearance, its numbers have undoubtedly increased under human influence...Latitude between 27°N and 25°S

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

(1)C. alliodora is the most widespread species in the genus, occurring naturally from northern Mexico through Central and South America to Paraguay, southern Brazil and northern Argentina (27°N-25°S; Boshier and Lamb, 1997). C. alliodora is also found on most of the Caribbean Islands from Cuba to Trinidad, but is almost certainly not native to Jamaica (Johnston, 1950). As a successful colonizer of disturbed sites after forest clearance, its numbers have undoubtedly increased under human influence...Latitude between 27°N and 25°S

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.03

(1)Throughout its native range C. alliodora occurs under a wide variety of ecological conditions, varying from very wet (as much as 6000 mm precipitation per year) to seasonally dry (as low as 600 mm precipitation and seven months dry season per year), and from sea level to as high as 1400 masl in Central America and 2,000 masl at lower latitudes in Colombia. Climatic amplitude (estimates)
- Altitude range: 0 - 2000 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 600 - 6000 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; bimodal; uniform
- Dry season duration: 0 - 6 months
- Mean annual temperature: 18 - 27ºC
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 20 - 33ºC
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 14 - 22ºC
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 5ºC

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.04

(1)Throughout its native range C. alliodora occurs under a wide variety of ecological conditions, varying from very wet (as much as 6000 mm precipitation per year) to seasonally dry (as low as 600 mm precipitation and seven months dry season per year), and from sea level to as high as 1400 masl in Central America and 2,000 masl at lower latitudes in Colombia.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.05

(1)Location of introductions C. alliodora has been introduced to a large number of countries in species and provenance trials (e.g. Stead, 1980). Outside of its native range, however, it has only been planted to any extent in Vanuatu. Despite rapid growth, however, these plantations have suffered from disease and problems of weediness, such that planting with this species has been discontinued (Tolfts, 1997). (2)Abstract: A preliminary assessment of the problem of plant invasions associated with agroforestry (AF) is presented and the terms of alien plant invasions such as alien plants, casual plants, naturalized plants, weeds, invasive plants, and transformer species are defined. The current knowledge of plant invasions that are the direct result of AF is fragmentary. Some tree and shrub species that are widely used in AF are among the most widespread and damaging plant invaders, including Acacia karroo, Acacia seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Calliandra calothyrsus, Cordia alliodora, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena spp., Parkia biglobosa, Prosopis spp., and Vitellaria paradoxa syn. Butyrospermum paradoxum. Some species that were deemed safe even a decade ago are now known to be invasive. A thorough global survey of problems and the perspectives of interested and affected parties is urgently needed. Guidelines to reduce the problems must be reviewed at regular intervals. Biotechnology has been proposed as a way of reducing problems of invasiveness by controlling flowering and thereby reducing or eliminating seed production in forestry plantations. This approach may not be compatible with AF by small-scale producers, also considering the possible dependency on external seed suppliers and the poorly understood risks of genetic engineering. KEYWORDS: TROPAG | Acacia | Balanites aegyptiaca | Calliandra calothyrsus | Cordia alliodora | Gliricidia sepium | Parkia biglobosa | agroforestry | plant introduction | weeds | vegetation | botanical composition | weed control | seed production | genetic engineering. (3)In the Galapagos archipelago, for example, four alien trees are highly invasive in natural systems. Two of these (Cedrela odorata and Cordia alliodora) were introduced for timber, one for its fruits (Psidium guajava), and one for quinine (Cinchona succirubra). (4)Of all invasive plants in Vanuatu, perhaps the most widely cited pest is Cordia alliodora (Ecuador laurel or salmwood). Introduced as a forestry tree to Vanuatu in the 1970s, this species has now become dominant and is considered a serious pest in locations where it was planted. Planting trials were initiated on the islands of Santo, Vanua Lava, Mota Lava, Ureparapara, Malekula, Ambae, Maewo, Pentecost, Efate, Epi and Eromango. These are the major islands of Vanuatu...It is becoming a nuisance as it slowly penetrates natural forests. It is a species that is multiplying at a faster rate than it is being harvested. Communities on a number of islands, particularly, Eromango and Maewo, have made formal complaints. Cordia alliodora is widely distributed meaning that if unchecked it could trigger an immense biodiversity problem.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Richardson, D. M., P. Binggeli, and G. Schroth. 2004. Invasive agroforestry trees: problems and solutions. Pp 371- 396 in G. Schroth et al. Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes. Island Press, Washington, D.C. (3)Richardson, D. M. 1998. Forestry Trees as Invasive Aliens. Conservation Biology 12(1): 18-26. (4)Bakeo, R. and F. Qarani. 2003. Country report on the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu. Pp. 130-136 in P. McKenzie, C. Brown, S. Jianghua and W. Jian (eds). The unwelcome guests: Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference. Kunming, Yunnan Province, China 17 - 23 August 2003.

3.01

(1)Introduced range: Invasive in Tanzania, Vanuatu, Tonga, Samoa and Galapagos Islands. Introduced but not invasive in some parts of tropical Africa, Fiji, Micronesia, Solomon Islands, West Indies and southeastern USA. (2)Cordia alliodora (kotia, Ecuador laurel, salmwood) was introduced to Samoa as a forestry tree. It was similarly introduced into Vanuatu and has become a pest there (Tolfts, 1997) as well as in Tonga. It is spreading where it is present in Samoa and will, over time, undoubtedly become a major component of Samoa’s forests.

(1)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009] (2)Space, J. C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu.

3.02

(1)Weediness: In Vanuatu, use of the young plantations for pasture, as was common practice under coconuts, with overgrazing in the dry season, left areas of bare soil ideal for regeneration of C. alliodora (Tolfts, 1997; Tschinkel, 1965). A mass of C. alliodora seedlings grew up, eliminating ground cover and spreading to neighbouring pastures where these were overgrazed. Only a very small area has been affected outside the plantations, but this is potentially an expensive problem for local cattle producers. Within its native range, C. alliodora is a successful colonizer of disturbed sites (e.g. pasture, coffee, cacao), sometimes forming monospecific stands. There is, however, no record of weediness, probably owing to the poorer soil conditions (nutrients, compaction etc.) into which it is dispersed. Given C. alliodora's ecological characteristics, its capacity to invade undisturbed closed forest habitats is probably limited. The restrictions in its use as an exotic are more likely to be related to its limitations as a plantation species rather than its potential as a weed. [a weed of disturbed areas with negative impacts on natural areas. See 3.04]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.03

(1)Ecosystem: The tree invades land adjacent to cultivation. It produces many seeds and regenerates easily. Rapidly and aggressively invades disturbed forest, often forming monotypic stands. It is a major weed of plantation forests [most references cite this species as a plantation tree that escapes and invades adjacent lands. Answer is Yes to 3.04]

(1)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

3.04

(1)Abstract: A preliminary assessment of the problem of plant invasions associated with agroforestry (AF) is presented and the terms of alien plant invasions such as alien plants, casual plants, naturalized plants, weeds, invasive plants, and transformer species are defined. The current knowledge of plant invasions that are the direct result of AF is fragmentary. Some tree and shrub species that are widely used in AF are among the most widespread and damaging plant invaders, including Acacia karroo, Acacia seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Calliandra calothyrsus, Cordia alliodora, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena spp., Parkia biglobosa, Prosopis spp., and Vitellaria paradoxa syn. Butyrospermum paradoxum. Some species that were deemed safe even a decade ago are now known to be invasive. A thorough global survey of problems and the perspectives of interested and affected parties is urgently needed. Guidelines to reduce the problems must be reviewed at regular intervals. Biotechnology has been proposed as a way of reducing problems of invasiveness by controlling flowering and thereby reducing or eliminating seed production in forestry plantations. This approach may not be compatible with AF by small-scale producers, also considering the possible dependency on external seed suppliers and the poorly understood risks of genetic engineering. KEYWORDS: TROPAG | Acacia | Balanites aegyptiaca | Calliandra calothyrsus | Cordia alliodora | Gliricidia sepium | Parkia biglobosa | agroforestry | plant introduction | weeds | vegetation | botanical composition | weed control | seed production | genetic engineering. (2)In the Galapagos archipelago, for example, four alien trees are highly invasive in natural systems. Two of these (Cedrela odorata and Cordia alliodora) were introduced for timber, one for its fruits (Psidium guajava), and one for quinine (Cinchona succirubra). (3)Of all invasive plants in Vanuatu, perhaps the most widely cited pest is Cordia alliodora (Ecuador laurel or salmwood). Introduced as a forestry tree to Vanuatu in the 1970s, this species has now become dominant and is considered a serious pest in locations where it was planted. Planting trials were initiated on the islands of Santo, Vanua Lava, Mota Lava, Ureparapara, Malekula, Ambae, Maewo, Pentecost, Efate, Epi and Eromango. These are the major islands of Vanuatu...It is becoming a nuisance as it slowly penetrates natural forests. It is a species that is multiplying at a faster rate than it is being harvested. Communities on a number of islands, particularly, Eromango and Maewo, have made formal complaints. Cordia alliodora is widely distributed meaning that if unchecked it could trigger an immense biodiversity problem.

(1)Richardson, D. M., P. Binggeli, and G. Schroth. 2004. Invasive agroforestry trees: problems and solutions. Pp 371- 396 in G. Schroth et al. Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes. Island Press, Washington, D.C. (2)Richardson, D. M. 1998. Forestry Trees as Invasive Aliens. Conservation Biology 12(1): 18-26. (3)Bakeo, R. and F. Qarani. 2003. Country report on the forestry invasive species situation in Vanuatu. Pp. 130-136 in P. McKenzie, C. Brown, S. Jianghua and W. Jian (eds). The unwelcome guests: Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference. Kunming, Yunnan Province, China 17 - 23 August 2003.

3.05

(1)Biological control of plants is more likely to succeed in constrained, isolated areas such as on oceanic islands. Cordia curassavica, one of the worst introduced weeds, has been effectively controlled on Mauritius. (2)The other fully successful weed biocontrol program in Mauritius targeted the woody shrub, black sage (Cordia curassavica) which, by the 1930s, was covering large tracts of the island in dense scrub. The first agent introduced from the native range of the target weed in the Caribbean was a chrysomelid beetle, Physonota alutacea, in 1947. Despite over 30,000 individuals being released as adults, larvae, or eggs, the insect failed to establish, possibly because of interference from ants (Williams 1950, Greathead 1971) A progressive feature of this program was the extensive host range testing of both this agent and the subsequently released chrysomelid Metrogaleruca obscura. For example, M. obscura was tested on 122 non-target plant species in the beetle’s native range in the Caribbean, and 86 non-target plant species after the importation of the beetle into confinement in Mauritius (Simmonds 1950, Williams 1951). Extensive ecological studies were also carried out on M. obscura. These included a study of the life history and natural enemies of M. obscura in Trinidad (Simmonds 1950), experiments using simulated herbivory to examine the effect of M. obscura on the seed production of C. curassavica (Callan 1948), and trials using field cages to show that M. obscura was capable of severely defoliating the host plant in the absence of natural enemies, particularly 2 species of parasitoids (Simmonds 1948). Historically, it is noteworthy that prior to the introduction of P. alutacea into Mauritius, a highly critical article was published in Nature suggesting that this attempt at biological control was misguided and ecologically dangerous (Maulik 1947)

4.01

(1)In lowland humid tropical regions, C. alliodora is generally a tall, thin tree, with a narrow, open crown, and shows minimal forking, forming a single stem to 15-20 m. Trees may reach a height of over 40 m, and a diameter at breast height (dbh) of over 1 m at overmaturity, although diameters of around 50 cm are more usual for mature trees (Somarriba and Beer, 1987). In seasonally dry deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, it is smaller and more poorly formed, rarely reaching more than 20 m in height and 30 cm dbh.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.02

(1)Despite features which are desirable for agroforestry uses (narrow open crown and self pruning), C. alliodora does not tolerate competition and requires wide spacings to achieve continued growth in plantations...Effective control of the high levels of weed growth under pure plantations is essential to achieve potential growth, but increases costs, although application of taungya methods of establishment has been shown to be effective in trials (Platen, 1996). [no evidence, and weeds will grow under trees, suggesting it is not allelopathic] (2)Toxic to Nearby Plants No

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.gardenguides.com/plants/plant.asp?symbol=COAL [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

4.03

(1)In lowland humid tropical regions, C. alliodora is generally a tall, thin tree, with a narrow, open crown, and shows minimal forking, forming a single stem to 15-20 m. Trees may reach a height of over 40 m, and a diameter at breast height (dbh) of over 1 m at overmaturity, although diameters of around 50 cm are more usual for mature trees (Somarriba and Beer, 1987). In seasonally dry deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, it is smaller and more poorly formed, rarely reaching more than 20 m in height and 30 cm dbh.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.04

Unknown

4.05

(1)No evidence (2)Toxic to Livestock: No

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.gardenguides.com/plants/plant.asp?symbol=COAL [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

4.06

(1)Under high humidity conditions in its natural distribution, C. alliodora is susceptible to large stem cankers caused by the rust fungus Puccinia cordiae (Briton-Jones, 1930, Spaulding, 1961; Johnson and Morales, 1972). The cankers are usually confined to one side of the tree, but several may coalesce to girdle the stem, sometimes leading to stem snap and even death. In international provenance trials this stem canker was only prominent at a Costa Rican site; the Limón (Costa Rica) provenance being by far the worst affected, with over half of the surviving trees afflicted. All provenances were, however, affected to some degree (6-23% of trees), with the San Francisco provenance (Honduras) the least badly affected. The incidence of canker was highest in the areas of the trial with poorest soil conditions suggesting that trees under stress were more susceptible to attack. In Costa Rica attack by a mistletoe parasite is common; Phoradendron robustissimum being the most abundant species, causing deformation to the wood and sometimes death. Attempts to identify a herbicide (including 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and MCP) that could be used systemically to control the mistletoe were unsuccessful (Echandi,1958).

Brown root rot (Phellinus noxius) is widespread in C. alliodora plantations in Vanuatu, and may be a limitation to successful planting of the species (Barrance, 1989). Evaluation of three provenance trials on the Vanuatu island of Espiritu Santo showed no difference between provenances with respect to susceptibility to root rot (Ivory, 1992), although occurrence of the disease was only sporadic. Similarly, greenhouse inoculation experiments failed to show significant differences between provenances but concluded that procedures were not sufficiently sensitive to detect possible small differences (Ivory, 1992).

The leaf bug Dictyla montropidia, may attack young plantations of C. alliodora in its natural range, with attack being greatest during dry periods or in trees under stress, such as on poor sites. Where attack is severe and repeated this may cause death of the trees directly, or indirectly through increased weed competition (Fallas, 1991). Seed are predated prior to dispersal by bruchid beetles (Amblycerus spp.), with as much as 50% of seed killed (Opler and Janzen, 1983), although levels of attack vary between trees and years. The larvae eat the developing seed embryo and attacked seed are evident from the round hole left in the calyx by the emerging adult beetle. Although the majority of adult beetles emerge during seed drying, a small proportion of live adults and larvae remain inside. Damaged seed and beetles can be removed during winnowing and if attack is bad, or seed is to be exported, a persistent grain storage insecticide (e.g. Pirimiphosmethyl), can be used to kill any late emerging beetles (Hughes, 1996). Leaf cutting ants (Atta sp.) have been known to defoliate C. alliodora in Colombia (Salas and Valencia, 1979), although over most of it natural range such attack is infrequent.

A trial in Liberia was characterized by a high level of termite attack, with some 80% of all trees showing signs of termite activity on their trunks at the time of assessment, although only 18% of trees were recorded as `severely' damaged, and the health of the trees was better at the time of assessment than after the initial attack. Although there were no significant provenance differences in terms of mortality, certain provenances were much more susceptible to attack/damage than others, although the differences between provenances did not follow the wet/dry zone grouping (see Variation and Breeding section). [most appear to be pests primarily of C. alliodora]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.07

(1)No evidence (2)Also used in agroforestry where it is grown with coffee and cocoa. Flowers and fruits are used in medicine and the leaves in ointments and tonics. [medicinal uses, but no mention of toxicity]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Salazar, R. and D. Jøker. 2000. Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavón) Oken. Seed Leaflet No. 25. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Denmark.

4.08

(1)The plant is moderately fire resistant [if fire resistant, probably won't carry fire very well, but ability to form monocultures could potentially increase risk]

(1)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

4.09

(1)It will survive under light shade but full overhead light is necessary for full vigour, and on fertile sites the species is capable of rapid early growth. It falls into the ecological group of long lived, shade-intolerant trees, variously referred to as late secondary species, small gap specialists, or big pioneers. (2)Reaction to Competition- Silvicultural research of laurel is still in its infancy. Advances are being made as more countries recognize the value of laurel wood products and the species' potential for fast growth. Any silvicultural technique must consider that laurel is classed as an intolerant pioneer species, demanding lots of light for best growth.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/cordia/alliodora.htm [Accessed 26 Aug 2009]

4.10

(1)Soil and physiography C. alliodora will survive under a range of nutrient conditions, as is shown by its widespread occurrence on degraded and abandoned areas once used for pasture or shifting cultivation. The range extends from flat, coastal lowlands, having deep infertile sands and little organic matter (Entisols or Oxisols), as in Surinam (Vega, 1977), to very dissected mountainous uplands, with deep, fertile volcanic soils high in organic matter (Andepts), as in Colombia and Costa Rica (Salas, 1981). The species does not tolerate either poor internal drainage, soil compaction, water-logging or very acidic soils with high aluminium saturation (Centro Agronomico Tropicale de Investigación y Enseñanza, 1994a). Soil descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral
- Soil types: alfisols; calcareous soils; ferralsols; ultisols; volcanic soils; alluvial soils

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

(1)In lowland humid tropical regions, C. alliodora is generally a tall, thin tree, with a narrow, open crown, and shows minimal forking, forming a single stem to 15-20 m. Trees may reach a height of over 40 m, and a diameter at breast height (dbh) of over 1 m at overmaturity, although diameters of around 50 cm are more usual for mature trees (Somarriba and Beer, 1987). In seasonally dry deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, it is smaller and more poorly formed, rarely reaching more than 20 m in height and 30 cm dbh.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.12

(1)C. alliodora is a prolific seeder and regenerates easily, readily colonising exposed fertile soil, often being found following forest clearance, as pure stands of varying densities...Within its native range, C. alliodora is a successful colonizer of disturbed sites (e.g. pasture, coffee, cacao), sometimes forming monospecific stands. There is, however, no record of weediness, probably owing to the poorer soil conditions (nutrients, compaction etc.) into which it is dispersed.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.02

(1)Boraginaceae

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.03

(1)Boraginaceae

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.04

(1)In lowland humid tropical regions, C. alliodora is generally a tall, thin tree, with a narrow, open crown, and shows minimal forking, forming a single stem to 15-20 m. Trees may reach a height of over 40 m, and a diameter at breast height (dbh) of over 1 m at overmaturity, although diameters of around 50 cm are more usual for mature trees (Somarriba and Beer, 1987). In seasonally dry deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, it is smaller and more poorly formed, rarely reaching more than 20 m in height and 30 cm dbh.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.02

(1)C. alliodora is a prolific seeder and regenerates easily, readily colonising exposed fertile soil, often being found following forest clearance, as pure stands of varying densities...Although seed (40-100,000 seed per kg) is never in short supply, the timing of collection is critical to ensure high germination.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)A strong incompatibility mechanism is evident in C. alliodora, there being two incompatibility groups, with roughly equal numbers of trees per group. Trees within each group are incompatible with one another, but are compatible with any tree from the other group. The incompatibility mechanism operates in the same way within and between families: selfing is prevented but related matings are not reduced in favour of unrelated matings (Boshier, 1995). Results from allozyme studies showed a high rate of outcrossing in natural stands (Boshier et al., 1995).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.05

(1) In the Caribbean C. alliodora flowers are known to bee keepers as a major source of nectar (Crane et al., 1984) that give a viscous extra-white honey (Mulzac, 1979). (2)Pollination occurs by wind, Lepidoptera and possibly bees. (3)The flowers have a nectariferous disk and are pollinated by butterflies like the other species in this genus; self-pollination is rare.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009] (3)Salazar, R. and D. Jøker. 2000. Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavón) Oken. Seed Leaflet No. 25. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Denmark.

6.06

(1)Vegetative propagation has only been used to establish seed orchards (grafting) and experimentally (cuttings) (2)Sprouting occurs from lateral roots. The plant has the ability to coppice if damaged. [no information on how far plants can spread vegetatively] (3)Vegetative Reproduction- Coppicing and epicormic branching on injured young trees have been reported in Costa Rica (12). Sprouting was seer from lateral roots in Trinidad (21). But research in this particular area seems nonexistent except for us of stem and branch sets in laurel tree improvement work in Colombia (14,35).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009] (3)http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/cordia/alliodora.htm [Accessed 26 Aug 2009]

6.07

(1)It is a large, hermaphroditic, insect-pollinated tree that reaches sexual maturity at approximately 5 yr but does not produce large quantities of seed until later. (2)Reproduction: Reaches sexual maturity within 5 to 10 years in Costa Rica, in other areas the plant is reported to start flowering sometimes after two years, but more commonly after 4 or 5 years. (3)Flowering begins when the tree is only 2-3 year old and viable seed is produced from its 5th year.

(1)Boshier, D. H., M. R. Chase, and K. S. Bawa. 1995. Population Genetics of Cordia alliodora (Boraginaceae), a Neotropical Tree. 3. Gene Flow, Neighborhood, and Population Substructure. American Journal of Botany 82(4): 484-490. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009] (3)Salazar, R. and D. Jøker. 2000. Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavón) Oken. Seed Leaflet No. 25. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Denmark.

7.01

(1)Fruit: brown at maturity, 1 cm long, 6 mm wide. Floral parts persistent. Seed: white, 7 mm long, 5 mm wide. Seed weight is variable. [no evidence, and no means of external attachment]

(1)Salazar, R. and D. Jøker. 2000. Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavón) Oken. Seed Leaflet No. 25. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Denmark.

7.02

(1)Cordia alliodora is an important neotropical tree, which combines timber of high quality and value with fast growth on good quality soils. The wood of C. alliodora is of great importance throughout its natural range, both for local use by farmers and as a commercial timber in national markets. The species is a prolific seeder, regenerates easily, and is often found, following forest clearance, as pure stands of varying densities. Farmers favour natural regeneration of C. alliodora within agroforestry systems, for which its light crown and self-pruning habit make it particularly suited, allowing some timber production without excessive competition with the crops. More recently, plantations have been established in a number of countries, both within its natural range and as an exotic, although its potential as an exotic may be limited. Survival and growth is particularly dependent on site fertility (Centro Agronomico Tropicale de Investigación y Enseñanza, 1994a; Corporacion Nacional de Investigación y Fomento Forestal, 1983; Kapp and Beer, 1995; Lujan, 1994; Somarriba and Beer, 1987), and therefore effective, economically viable planting of the species will be limited to fertile sites. Given the pressures on land, particularly the fertile land which is most suited to this species, C. alliodora is as likely to be planted in agroforestry systems as in pure plantations. Much research has been carried out, particularly in Costa Rica and Colombia, and the species has been the subject of various reviews (e.g. Johnson and Morales, 1972; Fenton et al., 1977; Greaves and McCarter, 1990; Centro Agronomico Tropicale de Investigación y Enseñanza, 1994a, Boshier and Lamb, 1997), an annotated bibliography (Greaves and McCarter, 1988) and extension material (e.g. Centro Agronomico Tropicale de Investigación y Enseñanza, 1994b; Forest Conservation Tree Improvement Project Honduras, 1998; FEDECAFE, 1992).

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

(1)No evidence and seeds relatively large

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.04

(1)Flower petals are persistent, acting as wings in wind dispersal of the generally single-seeded fruit. (2)Dispersal: Seeds are wind dispersed, with the persistent corolla acting as a parachute for the seed.

(1)Boshier, D. H., M. R. Chase, and K. S. Bawa. 1995. Population Genetics of Cordia alliodora (Boraginaceae), a Neotropical Tree. 3. Gene Flow, Neighborhood, and Population Substructure. American Journal of Botany 82(4): 484-490. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

7.05

(1)Flower petals are persistent, acting as wings in wind dispersal of the generally single-seeded fruit. (2)Dispersal: Seeds are wind dispersed, with the persistent corolla acting as a parachute for the seed.

(1)Boshier, D. H., M. R. Chase, and K. S. Bawa. 1995. Population Genetics of Cordia alliodora (Boraginaceae), a Neotropical Tree. 3. Gene Flow, Neighborhood, and Population Substructure. American Journal of Botany 82(4): 484-490. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

7.06

(1)Flower petals are persistent, acting as wings in wind dispersal of the generally single-seeded fruit. (2)Dispersal: Seeds are wind dispersed, with the persistent corolla acting as a parachute for the seed.

(1)Boshier, D. H., M. R. Chase, and K. S. Bawa. 1995. Population Genetics of Cordia alliodora (Boraginaceae), a Neotropical Tree. 3. Gene Flow, Neighborhood, and Population Substructure. American Journal of Botany 82(4): 484-490. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

7.07

(1)Fruit: brown at maturity, 1 cm long, 6 mm wide. Floral parts persistent. Seed: white, 7 mm long, 5 mm wide. Seed weight is variable. [no evidence, and no means of external attachment]

(1)Salazar, R. and D. Jøker. 2000. Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavón) Oken. Seed Leaflet No. 25. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Denmark.

7.08

(1)Flower petals are persistent, acting as wings in wind dispersal of the generally single-seeded fruit. (2)Dispersal: Seeds are wind dispersed, with the persistent corolla acting as a parachute for the seed. [no evidence of ingestion by animals]

(1)Boshier, D. H., M. R. Chase, and K. S. Bawa. 1995. Population Genetics of Cordia alliodora (Boraginaceae), a Neotropical Tree. 3. Gene Flow, Neighborhood, and Population Substructure. American Journal of Botany 82(4): 484-490. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

8.01

(1)C. alliodora is a prolific seeder and regenerates easily, readily colonising exposed fertile soil, often being found following forest clearance, as pure stands of varying densities...Although seed (40-100,000 seed per kg) is never in short supply, the timing of collection is critical to ensure high germination. (2)One tree may produce about one million seeds per year.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Cordia%20alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

8.02

[Seeds can be stored for long periods, but apparently lose viability quickly in field conditions or if not stored properly] (1)Tests in Costa Rica showed seed can be stored for several years at low temperature (below 5°C), in hermetically sealed containers that effectively maintain a low moisture content. A reduction in moisture content is best carried out by drying in the shade or a drying room, as drying directly in the sun `cooks' the seed (Boshier and Lamb, 1997). Shade drying reduced the moisture content to some 6 to 7% in four to six days depending on ambient conditions, while an artificial dryer achieved this in 2.5 days (Samaniego et al., 1997; Trivino et al., 1990). No pretreatment of seed is required prior to germination, which occurs within 10-28 days of sowing. (2)The seed is orthodox, but if not stored properly it loses viability fast. It is especially important to use bags that are completely airtight, either heavy plastic or aluminium. In Costa Rica experience is that after two weeks at room temperature the germination is down to 40%. Best storage is at 5°C and moisture content 7-10%. An experiment from Colombia showed that seed stored at 5°C and 8.5% moisture content retained 76% germination after 14 months.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Salazar, R. and D. Jøker. 2000. Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pavón) Oken. Seed Leaflet No. 25. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Denmark.

8.03

(1)Control: Difficult, as plants sprout readily. Grubbing or treatment with herbicides is probably necessary. [unknown]

(1)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/cordia_alliodora.htm [Accessed 25 Aug 2009]

8.04

(1)Although not reported widely in the literature, it coppices readily, even from large mature trees. A strong tap root is produced at an early stage, but a spreading root system also develops (Schlönvoight, 1993), and has been suggested as allowing the tree to withstand exposed conditions (Marshall, 1930), although the evidence from Fiji, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu is contradictory. Overall, C. alliodora was considered to be of average susceptibility to windthrow and snap, with several other species rated as more resistant. Even in areas that are not particularly prone to strong winds, stem snap may occur in mature C. alliodora trees and may be a feature of the narrow stem, weakness from disease, or increased crown weight after rain, particularly during flowering/seeding (Boshier and Lamb, 1997). - Tolerates drought; termites
- Ability to regenerate rapidly; self-prune; coppice

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.05

Unknown