Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

-3

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y= 1, n=-1

y

1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=1, n=-1

y

1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

y

1

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

Total score:

17

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)Formerly recognized as a distinct species called C. edulis, today the edible canna is considered to be a form of C. indica selected for production of a larger quantity of edible starch in the rhizome. It has been cultivated in Hawaii for use as a livestock feed, and during World War II it was grown as an emergency food plant. This form is more robust, reaching 6-10' in height and producing 20-40 stalks from the large rhizome, with red or yellow flowers about 3" long. (2)There are many cultivated varieties that come in beautiful and exotic colours such as yellow, orange, pink and red, see below. The blossoms of the cultivated varieties are much bigger than the canna indica. (3)Present-day cannas have descended from the old-fashioned Indian Shot, Canna indica...Cannas of today bear little resemblance to their ancestors. Their large flowers are available in such colors as ivory, yellow, rose, salmon, crimson and red. Many of their growth characteristics also have been modified to make cannas more suitable for landscape planting. There are dwarf cultivars now that grow only 1.8 feet (45 cm) in height and tall ones that attain a height of 6 feet (180 cm) as well as intermediate ones.

(1)Staples, G.W. and D.R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora: Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://www.letsgogardening.co.uk/Information/EG/Cannas.htm [08 Jan 2008] (3)Tjia, B. and R. J. Black. 2003. Cannas for the Florida Landscape. CIR424. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/MG/MG03000.pdf [08 Jan 2008]

1.02

(1)naturalized primarily in disturbed mesic to wet forest, 10-610 m, documented from all of the main islands except Ni`ihau and Kaho`olawe. (2)Very common throughout the more moist parts of tropical and subtropical America; widely naturalized in tropical Asia and Africa.

(1) Wagner et al. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 52: 1-415.

1.03

(1)Canna indica, commonly known as Indian shot or Canna lily, is a native of tropical America and is a very popular ornamental plant throughout the tropical world. This plant has become an invasive in Pitcairn and in New Zealand also where it grows in thickets, crowding out other plants. (2)Dynamic colours are popular at the moment and like their popularity in the 1930s cannas are now coming back into favour. Canna indica is a listed environmental weed in some states, so this species should not be planted. The hybrids and cultivars do not get out of control in the garden, and are a very hardy perennial with some of the most dynamic colours that you will ever see.

(1)http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?sts=sss&st=sss&fr=1&sn=&rn=wallis+and+futuna&hci=-1&ei=-1&x=26&y=6 [08 Jan 2008] (2)http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s1230479.htm [08 Jan 2008]

2.01

(1)Native to the Neotropics, now widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas.

(1) Wagner et al. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.02

2.03

(1)Hardiness: USDA Zone 7b: to -14.9 °C (5 °F) USDA Zone 8a: to -12.2 °C (10 °F) USDA Zone 8b: to -9.4 °C (15 °F) USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F) USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F) USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F) USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) USDA Zone 11: above 4.5 °C (40 °F)

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/78396/ [07 Jan 2008]

2.04

(1)naturalized primarily in disturbed mesic to wet forest, 10-610 m, documented from all of the main islands except Ni`ihau and Kaho`olawe.

(1)Wagner et al. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.05

(1)Very common throughout the more moist parts of tropical and subtropical America; widely naturalized in tropical Asia and Africa. Often cultivated and escaping from cultivation.

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 52: 1-415.

3.01

(1)naturalized primarily in disturbed mesic to wet forest, 10-610 m, documented from all of the main islands except Ni`ihau and Kaho`olawe. (2)Very common throughout the more moist parts of tropical and subtropical America; widely naturalized in tropical Asia and Africa. (3)Abstract: The family Cannaceae consisting of a single genus Canna is considered to be indigenous in Central and South America and the West Indies, and widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Canna indica L. and a yellow flower variety are naturalized in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. (4)Canna indica L. A rhizomatous herb, red flowers. Introduced, largely naturalized on roadsides and in secondary forest. Florence 10815.

(1) Wagner et al. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 52: 1-415. (3)Tanaka, N. 1998. On the genus Canna in Yaeyama Islands, the Ryukyus, Japan. Journal of Japanese Botany 73 (3) : 165-169. (4)Florence, J., S. Waldren and A. J. Chepstow-Lusty. 1995. The flora of the Pitcairn Islands: a review. Biological Joumal of the Linnean Society 56: 79-119.

3.02

See Question 3.04(1)Persistent in disturbed ground and also in wet places such as by streams and in ditches. (2)The grasshopper, Cornops aquaticum (Bruner) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) was considered as a potentially damaging natural enemy for water hyacinth in South Africa...Complete nymphal development was recorded on Pontederia cordata L. (Pontederiaceae) (pickerel weed) which is an introduced and potentially invasive species in South Africa and Canna indica L. (Cannaceae) which is also invasive in wetlands in South Africa. (3) Wild Canna or Indian Shot (Canna indica): Originates from Central and South America, and West Indies. It is a category 1 invader i.e. a weed which may not be grown and must be controlled. (4)A large number of species (ca. 250) have been introduced to Pitcairn, both accidentally and intentionally...The threats to the native biodiversity are mainly due to widespread alien species (e.g., L. camara, Canna indica) (5)Replaces all other plants on the ground, preventing natural regeneration, often leading to the invasion of weedy vines. It can remove water from damp habitats. Which habitats is it likely to invade? :Damp sites with high light in frost-free localities: wetlands, river margins, gullies, disturbed shrublands, forest margins, coastal areas.

(1)Hyde, M.A. & Wursten, B. (2008). Flora of Zimbabwe: Species information: Canna indica. http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=116220, retrieved 8 January 2008 (2)Hill, M.P. and I. G. Oberholzer. 2000. Host Specificity of the Grasshopper, Cornops aquaticum, a Natural Enemy of Water Hyacinth. Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. 4-14 July 1999, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA. Neal R. Spencer [ed.]. pp. 349-356 (3)http://www.southbroom.org/indigenous_alts.htm [08 Jan 2008] (4)Kingston, N. and S. Waldren. 2005. A conservation appraisal of the rare and endemic vascular plants of Pitcairn Island. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 781–800 (5)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=145

3.03

Unknown

3.04

Possibly, but evidence of impacts not well documented. Classified as disturbance weed.

3.05

(1)The 27 tertiary threatening weeds of urban Auckland are Acacia mearnsii, Albizia lophantha, Amaranthus lividus, A. powellii, Anredera cordifolia, Arctotheca calendula, Axonopus affinis, Canna X generalis (seeding form)Canna X generalis includes plants of the seedless ornamental canna and of the more prevalent tall seeding form which develops much larger colonies to the exclusion of all other plants. Unlike the other garden canna, the seeding form does not die down in winter.

(1)Esler, A.E. 1988. The naturalisation of plants in urban Auckland, New Zealand 6. Alien plants as weeds. New Zealand Journal of Botany 26: 585-618.

4.01

(1) No spines, thorns or burrs in botanical description of species.

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 52: 1-415.

4.02

No evidence.

4.03

No evidence.

4.04

(1)Tolerates hot to moderate temperature, damage and grazing, wind, salt, damp to mod dry. Intolerant of shade, heavy frost. (2)In parts of Kenya the root and in Malawi the whole plant is cultivated as a cattle-food. (3)Forms tall, dense, long-lived stands that are tolerant of a range of conditions including salt, wind, grazing or other damage, and damp to moderately dry conditions.

(1)http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/exotic_plant_life_and_weeds/detail.asp?WeedID=1225 [08 Jan 2008] (2)http://www.aluka.org/action/showMetadata?doi=10.5555/AL.AP.UPWTA.1_616&pgs=&cookieSet=1 [08 Jan 2008] (3)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=145 [09 Jan 2008]

4.05

No evidence, and plant is edible to animals.(1)Tolerates hot to moderate temperature, damage and grazing, wind, salt, damp to mod dry. Intolerant of shade, heavy frost. (2)In parts of Kenya the root and in Malawi the whole plant is cultivated as a cattle-food.

(1)http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/exotic_plant_life_and_weeds/detail.asp?WeedID=1225 [08 Jan 2008] (2)http://www.aluka.org/action/showMetadata?doi=10.5555/AL.AP.UPWTA.1_616&pgs=&cookieSet=1 [08 Jan 2008]

4.06

(1)Citrus mosaic disease, a potential threat to citrus production throughout India, is currently an important disease in the southern and northeastern states...Only three hosts, Canna indica, sorghum, and maize produced visible symptoms. Symptoms were observed 14 days postinoculation on C. indica as chlorotic spots, which later developed into a mosaic pattern...In both tests, only the C. indica, sorghum, and maize samples reacted positively. In dot blot ELISA, as little as 100 ng of virus could be detected in C. indica, sorghum, and maize. Virus from all three citrus. sources produced the same symptoms on C. indica, sorghum, and maize. (2)Canna indica L. [canna lily, fagamanu] Mycosphaerella sp. — leaf spot; Puccinia sp. — rust (ASLG020P); Uredo pseudocannae — rust

(1)Aparna, G.S. 2002. First Report of Herbacious Hosts for Citrus yellow mosaic badna virus from India. Plant Disease 86(8): 920. (2)Brooks, F. 2006. List of Plant Diseases in American Samoa. Land Grant Technical Report No. 44: 1-53.

4.07

Possibly (1)Abstract The prevalence of allergic disease has increased world wide during the last decades. Pollen allergy is the most typical form of allergic disease. The increase in its frequency during recent years is the most evident. Environmental factors play an important role in the problem of pollen allergy in large cities. The aim of this research is determination of allergenicity of Canna pollen in polluted and non-polluted conditions, detection of their allergenic proteins and also elucidation of some microscopic effects of air pollutants on pollen structure and proteins. Mature and immature pollen grains of Canna indica were collected from polluted and non-polluted areas. Pollen grains were studied by scanning electron microscopy. Mice were sensitized by injection of pollen extract and an adjuvant for five times. Allergy potency of different pollen extracts were compared by means of skin test, blood eosinophills number and IgE levels in sensitized and treated animals. Pollen proteins were studied by SDS-PGE and allergenic proteins were detected by immunoblotting techniques. Scanning electron microscope study of the pollen grains showed that in polluted areas, air born particles accumulated on the surface of pollen and changed both pollen's shape and pollen's tectum. Also many vesicles were released out of polluted pollen and the pollen material agglomerated on the surface of pollen. SDS-PAGE showed that different proteins exist in mature and immature pollen. In pollen collected from polluted area, some of protein bands between 22 and 45 kDa were disappeared . Also in all polluted pollen grains, protein content of pollen decreased in response to air pollution causing the release of pollen proteins. According to our experiments and regarding induction of allergic symptoms, the polluted pollen is more effective than non-polluted one, and mature pollen has more allergy potency than immature one.

(1)Majd, A., A. Chehregani, M. Moin, M. Gholami, S. Kohno, T. Nabe and M.A. Shariatzade. 2004. The Effects of Air Pollution on Structures, Proteins and Allergenicity of Pollen Grains. Aerobiologia 20(2): 111-118.

4.08

Unlikely given herbaceous habit, and tendency to grow in wet areas, despite following reference. (1)Moderate Flammability: These plants should be avoided in the Building Protection Zone. They should not be allowed dominate your garden and should be well maintained, being especially careful to remove dead material before it accumulates.

(1)http://www.fire.tas.gov.au/mysite/publications/1709%20Brochure.pdf [08 Jan 2008]

4.09

(1)It cannot grow in the shade.

(1)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Canna+indica

4.10

(1)Soil pH requirements: 5.6 to 6.0 (acidic) 6.1 to 6.5 (mildly acidic) 6.6 to 7.5 (neutral) (2)The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. (3)However, cannas will grow in almost any soil, provided good fertilization and irrigation practices are followed religiously.

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/78396/ [07 Jan 2008] (2)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Canna+indica [08 Jan 2008] (3)Tjia, B. and R. J. Black. 2003. Cannas for the Florida Landscape. CIR424. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/MG/MG03000.pdf [08 Jan 2008]

4.11

(1)Perennial herbs from tuberous rhizomes; stems 8-15 cm long.

(1)(1)Wagner et al. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.12

(1)C. indica is an upright perennial rhizomatous herb. The leaves are elliptic and rather fleshy. It is a native plant of tropical America, and very popular ornamental plant throughout the tropical and subtropical region around the world, but grows in thickets, crowding out other plants and difficult to remove due to its spread by rhizomes. (2)Often found invading moist areas and once established forms impenetrable thickets that are difficult to eradicate. (3)Other problem species include Canna indica, which forms dense stands in some open valley floors...Control of invasive species is one of the main priorities for conservation action. Some invasive species, including Lantana camara, Sorghum sudanense and Canna indica, are so widespread that their removal is presently impractical. (4)Forms tall, dense, long-lived stands that are tolerant of a range of conditions including salt, wind, grazing or other damage, and damp to moderately dry conditions.

(1)Zhang, Z., Z. Rengel and K. Meney. 2007. Growth and resource allocation of Canna indica and Schoenoplectus validus as affected by interspecific competition and nutrient availability. Hydrobiologia 589:235–248. (2)http://www.maroochy.qld.gov.au/environment/documents/Take_another_look.pdf [08 Jan 2008] (3)Waldren, S., N. Kingston, P. Bingelli, J. Starmer, J. Warren. 1998. Assessing the Status of the Pitcairn Island Flora - An Integrated Approach to Conservation. Proceedings of the Fifth International Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress. Kirstenbosch, South Africa. http://www.bgci.org/congress/congress_1998_cape/html/home.htm [08 Jan 2008] (4)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=145 [09 Jan 2008]

5.01

Grows in wetlands, but not fully aquatic.

5.02

Cannaceae

5.03

Cannaceae

5.04

(1)Rhizomes stout, more or less tuberous; stems 1-2 m tall, with glabrous leaf sheaths; (2)Both C. indica and S. validus are robust perennials, which rapidly produce ramets and have high growth rates. In addition, C. indica produces large storage rhizomes and high growth rates have been measured

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 52: 1-415. (2)Zhang, Z., Z. Rengel and K. Meney. 2007. Growth and resource allocation of Canna indica and Schoenoplectus validus as affected by interspecific competition and nutrient availability. Hydrobiologia 589:235–248.

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)Propagation: Seeds, rhizomes. Indian shot has very hard seeds with a dense coat that are in bumpy, papery capsules. These need to be scarified and soaked in water prior to planting. (2)Propagation: Seed - pre-soak for 24 hours in warm water and sow February/March in a warm greenhouse at 20°c[1, 138]. Plant the seeds 2 - 5cm deep in individual pots[1]. Scarifying the seed can speed germination, especially if the seed has not swollen after being soaked[124, K]. The seed usually germinates in 3 - 9 weeks[138].

(1)http://www.tropilab.com/indianshot.html [08 Jan 2008] (2)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Canna+indica [08 Jan 2008]

6.03

(1)Readily hybridizes with other species to form a wide spectrum of horticultural variants with showy flowers.

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium Volume 52: 1-415.

6.04

(1) Pollination experiments lead authors to conclusion that Canna indica is autogamous, or self-pollinating. (2)Edible achira (Canna indica) cultivars are predominantly inbreeder. The stigma develops at the same level as the anthers and self-fertilization occurs before the flowers open. Diploid achira set viable seeds. (3)Pollen is shed from the bisporangiate anther onto the adjacent style before the flower opens (secondary pollen presentation), which usually results in self-pollination; thus, greenhouse-grown plants readily set seed.

(1)Rambuda, T. D. and S. D. Johnson. 2004. Breeding systems of invasive alien plants in South Africa: does Baker’s rule apply? Diversity and Distributions 10: 409–416. (2)Fuccillo, D. A., L. Sears and P. Stapleton. 1998. Biodiversity in Trust: Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources in CGIAR Centres. Cambridge University Press. (3)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105521 [08 Jan 2008]

6.05

(1)INDIAN SHOT, CANNA INDICA (CANNACEAE) This crop is visited by Trigona sp. (referred to as Melipona sp.) in Java (53). The stingless bees forage deep in the flowers collecting nectar and, in doing so, effect pollination. (2)Several neotropical species with bright red or orange flowers are hummingbird-pollinated. Nectar, which accumulates at the base of the floral tube, is the apparent reward in all cases. (3)The pollinators of canna in its native tropical America are bees, hummingbirds and bats.

(1)Heard, T.A. 1999. The role of stingless bees in crop pollination. Annu. Rev. Entomol 44:183–206. (2)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105521 [08 Jan 2008] (3)http://besgroup.talfrynature.com/?m=200710 [08 Jan 2008]

6.06

(1)C. indica is an upright perennial rhizomatous herb. The leaves are elliptic and rather fleshy. It is a native plant of tropical America, and very popular ornamental plant throughout the tropical and subtropical region around the world, but grows in thickets, crowding out other plants and difficult to remove due to its spread by rhizomes. (2)Fragments remaining in soil will resprout so follow-up control by digging or spraying is required. Plant the site with local native plants to shade out seedlings.

(1)Zhang, Z., Z. Rengel and K. Meney. 2007. Growth and resource allocation of Canna indica and Schoenoplectus validus as affected by interspecific competition and nutrient availability. Hydrobiologia 589:235–248. (2)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=145 [09 Jan 2008]

6.07

(1)Seeds can germinate and produce reproductive shoots in a single growing season.

(1)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105521 [08 Jan 2008]

7.01

(1)Canna indica. Spread by dumping of garden waste, tubers and seed (2)Dispersal, establishment & growth: Dispersed in garden waste.

(1)http://www.goldcoastwater.qld.gov.au/attachment%5Cplanningscheme%5Cpolicies%5Cbushcare_2.pdf [08 Jan 2008] (2)Benson, D. and L. McDougall. 2002. Ecology of Sydney plant species. Part 9 Monocotyledon families Agavaceae to Juncaginaceae. Cunninghamia Vol. 7(4): 695-930.

7.02

Popular ornamental (1)The seeds are suitable as peashooter ammunition, hence the common name, as well as being used in hula rattles in Hawaii. The plant is widely cultivated for its red or yellow flowers and is commonly naturalized in wet places.

(1)Whistler, W.A. 2000. Tropical Ornamentals: A Guide. Timber Press. Portland, OR.

7.03

No evidence

7.04

Fairly large seeds. (1)The large seed size and lack of reward for potential animal dispersal agents suggests that seeds are dispersed by gravity and water.

(1)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105521 [08 Jan 2008]

7.05

(1)The large seed size and lack of reward for potential animal dispersal agents suggests that seeds are dispersed by gravity and water. (2)Seeds are spread by gravity and water, and pieces of underground stem (rhizome) also form new plants.

(1)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105521 [08 Jan 2008] (2)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=145 [09 Jan 2008]

7.06

Appears in a table of plant species with bird dispersal syndromes (1)

(1)Staples, G.W., D. Herbst and C.T. Imada. 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers No 65: 1-35

7.07

No mechanisms for external attachment.

7.08

Dispersed by birds (1)

(1)Staples, G.W., D. Herbst and C.T. Imada. 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers No 65: 1-35

8.01

Unknown

8.02

(1)The seeds of Canna are able to survive extremely long dormant periods. Seeds from archaeological sites of an age of 600 years have proved still viable. (2)The seeds of Cannaeeae are equipped with a special mechanism allowing them to survive long periods of unfavourable conditions. The seed coat of Canna is very hard and impermeable to water.

(1)Kubitzki, K., K.U., Kramer, P.S. Green, J. G., Rohwer, V. Bittrich, H. Huber, J. W. Kadereit and C. Jeffrey.1998. The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants: IV Flowering Plants, Monocotyledons, Alismatanae and Commelinanae (except Graminae). Springer, New York. (2)Graven, P., C. G. de Koster, J. J. Boon and F. Bouman. 1997. Functional aspects of mature seed coat of the Cannaceae. P1. Syst. Evol. 205:223-240.

8.03

(1)Picloram was consistently found to be extremely active on all plants tested. When used correctly, 100 % kill of the treated weed species was achieved in research trials (2)Cut stems and paint: metsulfuron-methyl 600g/kg (1g) + glyphosate (50ml) + penetrant/1L water, or a 3-5mm layer of Vigilant gel. Mulch the leaves and dispose of seeds at a refuse transfer station. Overall spray (spring-summer): metsulfuron-methyl 600g/kg (2g) + glyphosate (100ml) + penetrant/10L water.

(1)http://www.macspred.com.au/index/inews [08 Jan 2008] (2)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=145 [08 Jan 2008]

8.04

(1)Fire response: Resprouted after high intensity fire 1994 (at Lane Cove and Narrabeen), flowering in 38 weeks (P. Kubiak pers. comm.).

(1)Benson, D. and L. McDougall. 2002. Ecology of Sydney plant species. Part 9 Monocotyledon families Agavaceae to Juncaginaceae. Cunninghamia Vol. 7(4): 695-930.

8.05

(1)Canna is prized and well known as an ornamental and landscaping plant in Hawai'i. Sensitive varieties become infected with a rust fungus evident as numerous small yellow, powdery appearing uredinial pustules primarily on lower leaf surfaces. Masses of urediniospores may be easily rubbed off with the fingers. Telia, usually less frequent, also may be visible among uredinia, appearing as tan-colored pustules containing spores that are not as easily dislodged by rubbing. Heavy uredinial infections may become conspicuous, detracting from the ornamental value of canna. The host may be so severely attacked that cultivation of sensitive varieties becomes impractical (Gardner and Martinez, 1985). (Gardner and Hodges, 1989)

(1)Gardner, D.E. 1996. RUST AND SMUT FUNGI OF HAWAI'I: AN ANNOTATED HOST INDEX ON ANGIOSPERMS AND FERNS. COOPERATIVE National PARK RESOURCES STUDIES UNIT, UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I AT MANOA. Technical Report 100: 1-47.