Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Myrtaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: duhat

English: jambolan plum, Java plum

Fijian: kavika ni India

French: faux pistachier, jamblon, jambolanier, jamélongue, jamelonguier, jamelonier

Hindi: jaman, jammun

Maori (Cook Islands): ka‘ika, kaika, paramu, pisat, pistāita, pistati, pītāti

Palauan: mesegerak, mesekerrák, mesekerrak, mesigerak

Samoan: nonu fi‘afi‘a

Spanish: guayabo pesgua, yambolana

Tahitian: pistas

Habit:  tree

Description:  "A tree to 20 tall with scaly gray bark; leaves opposite, dark green, 5-15 cm long, 2.5-8 cm wide, acuminate, elliptic-oblong, narrow; petioles 1-2.5 cm long; flowers in cymose clusters, axillary or in axils of fallen leaves, white or pink, 12 mm wide; calyx 4-6 mm wide, up to 8 mm long; petals caducous; stamens many (c. 50), exserted, white or pinkish, to 7 mm long; fruit oblong, 2-2.5 cm long, deep purplish-black, juicy; seed 1, large, green" (Stone, 1970; p. 447).

Habitat/ecology:  This large evergreen tree forms a dense cover, excluding all other species. Although it is not an aggressive invader of undisturbed forest like the closely related roseapple (Syzygium jambos), it prevents the reestablishment of native lowland forest. It is found in dry to mesic and more rarely wet lowland areas up to 700 m in Hawai‘i (C. W. Smith, 1985; p. 189), up to 1200 m in French Polynesia.  "Invades mesic valleys, especially along stream banks, and provides deep shade"  (Motooka et al., 2003).  In Fiji, "cultivated near sea level or perhaps rarely naturalized in forest"  (A. C. Smith, 1985; pp. 327-328). In New Caledonia, "est commun, planté et naturalisé" (MacKee, 1994; p. 108).

Propagation:  The large black fruit are dispersed by frugivorous birds and perhaps occasionally by feral pigs (Sus scrofa).

Native range:  Indo-Malaysian.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 89)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 164823) Taxon name on voucher: Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1962) (voucher ID: BISH 14931) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 327-328) Vouchers cited: DA 11939 (DF 19, Watkins 688) Perhaps rarely naturalized.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 327-328) Vouchers cited: DA 3406, DA 188, DA 7608, DA 6021, DA 10523, DA 12353, DA 821, DA 3316 Perhaps rarely naturalized.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 14930) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1961) (voucher ID: BISH 14932) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1986) (voucher ID: BISH 545499) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 1000522) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Marquesas Islands	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 201-202)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491151) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1992) (voucher ID: BISH 643633) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 201-202) Voucher cited: BRY 25426
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 53) Voucher cited: Fosberg & Sachet 64966 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		University of California (2006)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 201-202) Voucher cited: BRY 26543
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 81)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 554223) Taxon name on voucher: Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 554224) Taxon name on voucher: Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 560428) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Niau Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1990) (voucher ID: BISH 633770) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M-H. (1983) (p. 31)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 447) Voucher cited: Stone 4281 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 189)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1962) (voucher ID: BISH 164973) Taxon name on voucher: Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 975)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 975)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 975)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 975) Voucher cited: Faurie 55 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 975)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 975)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Maré	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 106) Voucher cited: Däniker 2558
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 106) Vouchers cited: Le Rat 254, Godefroy 81, Baumann 9891, MacKee 2084, MacKee 23422, MacKee 29744, MacKee 37916
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1948) (voucher ID: BISH 166886) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 134) Voucher cited: CHR 170461
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 25)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 15)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 189)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Raulerson, L./Rinehart, A. F./Falanruw, M. C. (1996)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (2006) (voucher ID: BNM 1219) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini Druce
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (2005) (voucher ID: BNM 216) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Druce
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 189) Cultivated?
Palau Palau (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 164927) Taxon name on voucher: Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
Palau Palau (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1933) (voucher ID: BISH 164929) Taxon name on voucher: Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
Palau Palau (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 166986) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Palau Rock Islands	Aulupse‘el Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 189) Cultivated?
Palau Rock Islands	Ngerukuid (Seventy) Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 540102) Taxon name on voucher: Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1975) (voucher ID: BISH 418005) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1975) (voucher ID: BISH 418007) Taxon name on voucher: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 202-203) Cited: Cartwright.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009) Naturalized
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (pp. 70-71, 128) May naturalize.
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/subspontané"
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Agalega Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. (1983) (p. 129)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009) Naturalized

Comments:  Very invasive in the Cook Islands and on Raiatea, French Polynesia.

Control: 

Physical:  Hand pull or dig out seedlings and young plants.  "Goats browse on Java plum plants (An Peishel)"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Chemical:  "Sensitive to foliar application of triclopyr and very sensitive to picloram.  Saplings up to 10 feet tall were susceptible to drizzle applications of triclopyr ester in crop oil at 1 lb/acre.  Sensitive to cut-surface applications (to drilled holes) of 2,4-D, dicamba, glyphosate, and triclopyr, and to basal bark and stump bark applications of triclopyr, 2,4-D, and imazapyr.  If Florida, basal bark applications of triclopyr ester at 10% product in oil, cut-surface applications of triclopyr amine at 50% product in water, and with triclopyr ester at 10% product in water were all effective.  Large trees have thick bark that makes basal bark treatments ineffective"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:
Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Photos and additional information at University of Florida, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants.
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
Fact sheet from "Common forest trees of Hawaii" (PDF format).
Information from the World Agroforestry Centre's AgroForestryTree Database.
Information from the Global Invasive Species Database.
Information from the book "Identification and biology of non-native plants in Florida's natural areas" (PDF format).

Additional online information about Syzygium cumini is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Syzygium cumini as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Syzygium cumini may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

Other Latin names:  Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 2005. Voucher specimen #BNM216(Costion 216).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 2006. Voucher specimen #BNM1219(Costion 1219).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 164823 (Wilder, G.P. 1016).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 164927 (Kanehira, R. 472).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1933. Voucher specimen #BISH 164929 (Hosokawa, T. 7134).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1941. Voucher specimen #BISH 166986 (Hosokawa, T. 9774).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1948. Voucher specimen #BISH 166886 (Buchholz, J.T. 1772).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1956. Voucher specimen #BISH 14930 (Parham, J.W. 10523).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1961. Voucher specimen #BISH 14932 (Pillay, S. 12353).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1962. Voucher specimen #BISH 14931 (Cottle, G.W. 13270).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1962. Voucher specimen #BISH 164973 (Stone, B.C.M. 4281).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1975. Voucher specimen #BISH 418005 (Whistler, W.A. W 2112).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1975. Voucher specimen #BISH 418007 (Whistler, W.A. W 2120).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491151 (Florence, J. 4136).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 554223 (Florence, J. 6602).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 554224 (Florence, J. 6602).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1986. Voucher specimen #BISH 545499 (Florence, J. 7433).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 540102 (Raulerson, L. 16720).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 560428 (Florence, J. 9030).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000522 (W.L.Wagner 6214).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1990. Voucher specimen #BISH 633770 (Florence 10114).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1992. Voucher specimen #BISH 643633 (Florence 11708).

Délégation à l'Environnement/Délégation à Recherche. 2001. Les plantes envahissantes en Polynésie Française. French Polynesia. 2 p. folder.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Unpublished database and supplement to: Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. 1983. List of the recorded vascular flora of Agalega. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Langeland, K. A./Burks, K. Craddock. eds. 1998. Identification and biology of non-native plants in Florida's natural areas. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida. 165 pp.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Little, Elbert L./Skolmen, Roger G. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and introduced). USDA Agriculture Handbook 679. Washington, D.C. 377 pp. + plates.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2008. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Raulerson, L./Rinehart, A. F./Falanruw, M. C. 1996. A botanical reconnaissance of the proposed Compact-impact road alignment on Babeldaob Island, Republic of Palau. U. of Guam Herbarium Cont. No. 32. 78 pp.

Sachet, M-H. 1983. Takapoto Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago: terrestrial vegetation and flora. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 277. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 41 pp. + photos.

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2009. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

University of California. 2006. Moorea Digital Flora Project (online resource).

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.