Parmarion martensi (Ariophantidae)

The semi-slug Parmarion cf. martensi is an important disperser of rat lungworm disease (of which the causative agent is the nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis). There are other dispersers of rat lungworm disease, but Parmarion cf. martensi may be much more efficient than the others.  "The semi-slug Parmarion cf. martensi Simroth, 1893, was first discovered on Oahu, Hawaii, in 1996 and then on the island of Hawaii in 2004." (Hollingsworth et al., 2007)  As of October 2012, Maui is not known to have this slug, but it is established on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu and undoubtedly gets sent to Maui with various interisland shipments.  Parmarion martensi is native to Southeast Asia (probably). 

Species description or overview

Taxonomy & nomenclature

Impacts

Disease outbreak on Big Island raising alarm among residents 
The rat lungworm disease that put two Big Island residents into comas is bringing attention to an illness confirmed in only 33 cases in Hawai'i since 2001 (Honolulu Advertiser, 2/8/2009).

Hawaii parasite victim slowly recovering after weeks in coma
The victim of one of the most severe cases of rat lungworm disease ever seen in Hawaii is slowly recovering after months of being in a coma (Honolulu Advertiser, 5/9/2009).

Parasites cause intense pain for Big Island victims
Rat lungworm disease has hospitalized Big Island residents (Honolulu Star Bulletin, 1/5/2009).

Host/vector of these species

Changing epidemiology of Angiostrongyliasis cantonensis in Okinawa prefecture, Japan 
Okinawa Prefecture experienced an outbreak of angiostrongyliasis in January of2000 (I). The origin ofthe infection's outbreak could not be identified. We examined the past records of Angiostrongylus eantonensis (Ae) infection outbreaks and investigated the current distribution of Ae's intermediate and paratenic hosts with infective third-stage larvae in Okinawa. In order to find the infective larvae of Ae in the giant African snail, Achatina fulica, the pallial organ (lung) of the snail was compressed between two glass plates and examined under a microscope (2) (Figs. lA, IB). In other host animals, the whole body was digested in artificial gastric juice (l% pepsin/l% Hel), and the digested material was allowed to sediment; the sediment thus formed was then examined microscopically. In particular, albino rats were given larvae from Platydemus manokwari and Parmarion martensi orally with the specimen, and identification was made based on the morphology of the adult Ae recovered at 59 days post-inoculation.

Dispersal and pathways

Best on-farm food safety practices: Documenting trace-back and trace-forward of harvested produce 
This CTAHR publication details steps to use for trace-back and trace-forward tracking of harvested produce. These procedures can be important for isolating sources of outbreaks of produce-related human disease (as well as--presumably--for other reasons).

Management plans

Human health issues

Distribution of Parmarion cf. martensi (Pulmonata: Helicarionidae), a new semi-slug pest on Hawaii Island, and its potential as a vector for human angiostrongyliasis 
The semi-slug Parmarion cf. martensi Simroth, 1893, was first discovered on Oahu, Hawaii, in 1996 and then on the island of Hawaii in 2004. This species, which is probably native to Southeast Asia, is abundant in eastern Hawaii Island, reportedly displacing the Cuban slug, Veronicella cubensis (Pfeiffer, 1840), in some areas. A survey in July-August 2005 found P. cf. martensi primarily in the lower Puna area of Hawaii Island, with an isolated population in Kailua-Kona (western Hawaii Island). It is now established in commercial papaya plantations, and survey participants reported it as a pest of lettuce and papaya in home gardens. Survey respondents considered P. cf. martensi a pest also because of its tendency to climb on structures where it deposits its feces and because of its potential to transmit disease. Individuals of this species were found to carry large numbers of infective third-stage larvae of the nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Chen, 1935), the causative agent of human angiostrongyliasis and the most common cause of human eosinophilic meningoencephalitis. Using a newly developed polymerase chain reaction test, 77.5% of P. cf. martensi collected at survey sites were found infected with A. cantonensis, compared with 24.3% of V. cubensis sampled from the same areas. The transmission potential of this species may be higher than that for other slugs and snails in Hawaii because of the high prevalence of infection, worm burdens, and its greater association with human habitations, increasing the possibility of human-mollusk interactions.

Distribution of Parmarion cf. martensi (Pulmonata: Helicarionidae), a new semi-slug pest on Hawaii Island, and its potential as a vector for human Angiostrongyliasis
The disease transmission potential of Parmarion cf. martensi may be higher than that for other slugs and snails in Hawaii because of the high prevalence of infection, worm burdens, and its greater association with human habitations (2007).

Snails, slugs, and semi-slugs: A parasitic disease in paradise
An image of Angiostrongylus cantonensis larva obtained from a Parmarion martensi semi-slug collected in Hawaii, and information about parasite evaluation methods are provided by the Center for Disease Control.

Best on-farm food safety practices: Documenting trace-back and trace-forward of harvested produce 
This CTAHR publication details steps to use for trace-back and trace-forward tracking of harvested produce. These procedures can be important for isolating sources of outbreaks of produce-related human disease (as well as--presumably--for other reasons).

Avoid contracting Angiostrongyliasis (rat lungworm infection): Wash fresh fruits and vegetables before eating! 
Angiostrongyliasis overview and prevention measures are provided by the University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources.

Best on-farm food safety practices: Reducing risks associated with rat lungworm infection and human eosinophilic meningitis 
Recent cases of eosinophilic meningitis have drawn attention to a foodborne parasitic infection that occurs in Hawaii, the Pacific Islands, southern and eastern Asia, and elsewhere. In late 2008, the Hawaii Department of Health reported that four people on the island of Hawaii were diagnosed with eosinophilic meningitis, secondary to rat lungworm infection. They may have been infected after eating fresh produce grown in the region that was contaminated with snails or slugs infected with the parasite Angiostrongylus cantonensis. Hawaii also experienced a cluster of five infections by this pathogen from November 2004 to January 2005 (Hochberg et al. 2007). According to the Hawaii Department of Health, reports of severe infections are uncommon. However, anecdotal evidence from a group of workshop attendees in the Puna district on Hawaii in January 2009 put the incidence rate much higher. Although reporting appears to lag behind actual disease incidence rate, the threat to residents and visitors is low. Due to the possible severity of the symptoms, it is important to practice preventive measures in your home garden or commercial farm, as well as in your kitchen.

DOH: Wash produce thoroughly to prevent rat lung worm
Angiostrongylus, or rat lung worm, which has sickened at least six people on Hawaii Island, can be prevented by washing produce thoroughly (Hawaii 247, 1/26/2009).

Changing epidemiology of Angiostrongyliasis cantonensis in Okinawa prefecture, Japan 
Okinawa Prefecture experienced an outbreak of angiostrongyliasis in January of2000 (I). The origin ofthe infection's outbreak could not be identified. We examined the past records of Angiostrongylus eantonensis (Ae) infection outbreaks and investigated the current distribution of Ae's intermediate and paratenic hosts with infective third-stage larvae in Okinawa. In order to find the infective larvae of Ae in the giant African snail, Achatina fulica, the pallial organ (lung) of the snail was compressed between two glass plates and examined under a microscope (2) (Figs. lA, IB). In other host animals, the whole body was digested in artificial gastric juice (l% pepsin/l% Hel), and the digested material was allowed to sediment; the sediment thus formed was then examined microscopically. In particular, albino rats were given larvae from Platydemus manokwari and Parmarion martensi orally with the specimen, and identification was made based on the morphology of the adult Ae recovered at 59 days post-inoculation.

Watch out Hawaii: Veggies may harbor rare parasite
Rat lungworm disease victims in Hilo, Hawaii, may have contracted the parasite by consuming raw vegetables (Scientific American, 1/8/2008).

Distribution

Distribution of Parmarion cf. martensi (Pulmonata: Helicarionidae), a new semi-slug pest on Hawaii Island, and its potential as a vector for human angiostrongyliasis 
The semi-slug Parmarion cf. martensi Simroth, 1893, was first discovered on Oahu, Hawaii, in 1996 and then on the island of Hawaii in 2004. This species, which is probably native to Southeast Asia, is abundant in eastern Hawaii Island, reportedly displacing the Cuban slug, Veronicella cubensis (Pfeiffer, 1840), in some areas. A survey in July-August 2005 found P. cf. martensi primarily in the lower Puna area of Hawaii Island, with an isolated population in Kailua-Kona (western Hawaii Island). It is now established in commercial papaya plantations, and survey participants reported it as a pest of lettuce and papaya in home gardens. Survey respondents considered P. cf. martensi a pest also because of its tendency to climb on structures where it deposits its feces and because of its potential to transmit disease. Individuals of this species were found to carry large numbers of infective third-stage larvae of the nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Chen, 1935), the causative agent of human angiostrongyliasis and the most common cause of human eosinophilic meningoencephalitis. Using a newly developed polymerase chain reaction test, 77.5% of P. cf. martensi collected at survey sites were found infected with A. cantonensis, compared with 24.3% of V. cubensis sampled from the same areas. The transmission potential of this species may be higher than that for other slugs and snails in Hawaii because of the high prevalence of infection, worm burdens, and its greater association with human habitations, increasing the possibility of human-mollusk interactions.

Distribution of Parmarion cf. martensi (Pulmonata: Helicarionidae), a new semi-slug pest on Hawaii Island, and its potential as a vector for human Angiostrongyliasis
The disease transmission potential of Parmarion cf. martensi may be higher than that for other slugs and snails in Hawaii because of the high prevalence of infection, worm burdens, and its greater association with human habitations (2007).

Full-text articles

Distribution of Parmarion cf. martensi (Pulmonata: Helicarionidae), a new semi-slug pest on Hawaii Island, and its potential as a vector for human angiostrongyliasis 
The semi-slug Parmarion cf. martensi Simroth, 1893, was first discovered on Oahu, Hawaii, in 1996 and then on the island of Hawaii in 2004. This species, which is probably native to Southeast Asia, is abundant in eastern Hawaii Island, reportedly displacing the Cuban slug, Veronicella cubensis (Pfeiffer, 1840), in some areas. A survey in July-August 2005 found P. cf. martensi primarily in the lower Puna area of Hawaii Island, with an isolated population in Kailua-Kona (western Hawaii Island). It is now established in commercial papaya plantations, and survey participants reported it as a pest of lettuce and papaya in home gardens. Survey respondents considered P. cf. martensi a pest also because of its tendency to climb on structures where it deposits its feces and because of its potential to transmit disease. Individuals of this species were found to carry large numbers of infective third-stage larvae of the nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Chen, 1935), the causative agent of human angiostrongyliasis and the most common cause of human eosinophilic meningoencephalitis. Using a newly developed polymerase chain reaction test, 77.5% of P. cf. martensi collected at survey sites were found infected with A. cantonensis, compared with 24.3% of V. cubensis sampled from the same areas. The transmission potential of this species may be higher than that for other slugs and snails in Hawaii because of the high prevalence of infection, worm burdens, and its greater association with human habitations, increasing the possibility of human-mollusk interactions.

Changing epidemiology of Angiostrongyliasis cantonensis in Okinawa prefecture, Japan 
Okinawa Prefecture experienced an outbreak of angiostrongyliasis in January of2000 (I). The origin ofthe infection's outbreak could not be identified. We examined the past records of Angiostrongylus eantonensis (Ae) infection outbreaks and investigated the current distribution of Ae's intermediate and paratenic hosts with infective third-stage larvae in Okinawa. In order to find the infective larvae of Ae in the giant African snail, Achatina fulica, the pallial organ (lung) of the snail was compressed between two glass plates and examined under a microscope (2) (Figs. lA, IB). In other host animals, the whole body was digested in artificial gastric juice (l% pepsin/l% Hel), and the digested material was allowed to sediment; the sediment thus formed was then examined microscopically. In particular, albino rats were given larvae from Platydemus manokwari and Parmarion martensi orally with the specimen, and identification was made based on the morphology of the adult Ae recovered at 59 days post-inoculation.

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