Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Terminalia myriocarpa


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Low risk, score: -2


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment
  Terminalia myriocarpa (Jhalna, hollock, East indian almond) Family - Combretaceae Answer Score
1.01 Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01) n 0
1.02 Has the species become naturalized where grown?    
1.03 Does the species have weedy races?    
2.01 Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical” 2  
2.02 Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high)                 see appendix 2 2  
2.03 Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility) y 1
2.04 Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates y 1
2.05 Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?  y=-2 y  
3.01 Naturalized beyond native range         y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05 y 1
3.02 Garden/amenity/disturbance weed                              y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) n 0
3.03 Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed                         y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) n 0
3.04 Environmental weed                                                     y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) n 0
3.05 Congeneric weed                                                          y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) y 1
4.01 Produces spines, thorns or burrs n 0
4.02 Allelopathic n 0
4.03 Parasitic n 0
4.04 Unpalatable to grazing animals    
4.05 Toxic to animals n 0
4.06 Host for recognized pests and pathogens n 0
4.07 Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans n 0
4.08 Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems n 0
4.09 Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle y 1
4.1 Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island) n 0
4.11 Climbing or smothering growth habit n 0
4.12 Forms dense thickets n 0
5.01 Aquatic n 0
5.02 Grass n 0
5.03 Nitrogen fixing woody plant n 0
5.04 Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers) n 0
6.01 Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat n 0
6.02 Produces viable seed. y 1
6.03 Hybridizes naturally    
6.04 Self-compatible or apomictic n -1
6.05 Requires specialist pollinators n 0
6.06 Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation n -1
6.07 Minimum generative time (years)                 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1 4 -1
7.01 Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas) n -1
7.02 Propagules dispersed intentionally by people y 1
7.03 Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant n -1
7.04 Propagules adapted to wind dispersal y 1
7.05 Propagules water dispersed n -1
7.06 Propagules bird dispersed n -1
7.07 Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally) n -1
7.08 Propagules survive passage through the gut n -1
8.01 Prolific seed production (>1000/m2) n -1
8.02 Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)    
8.03 Well controlled by herbicides    
8.04 Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire    
8.05 Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)    
  Total score:   -2

Supporting data:

  Notes Reference
1.01 No evidence  
1.02    
1.03    
2.01 (1)"It is known from rainforest areas of Bhutan, China (Xizhang), northeastern India, Sumatra, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam; from sea level up to 1500 m altitude (Lemmens et al., 1995; Luna, 1996). It is often found scattered along streams in evergreen hill forest. "  (2)"Native range:  India, China and Indonesia."   (3)"Native:
ASIA-TEMPERATE
China: China - Guangxi, Xizang, Yunnan
ASIA-TROPICAL
Indian Subcontinent: Bhutan; India [n.e.]; Nepal
Indo-China: Laos; Myanmar; Thailand; Vietnam [n.]
Malesia: Indonesia - Sumatra [n.]; Malaysia"
(1)Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.  (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/terminalia_myriocarpa.htm                 (3)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?36345
2.02    
2.03 Altitude range: 0 - 1500 m Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
2.04 (1)"It is known from rainforest areas of Bhutan, China (Xizhang), northeastern India, Sumatra, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam; from sea level up to 1500 m altitude (Lemmens et al., 1995; Luna, 1996). It is often found scattered along streams in evergreen hill forest. "  (2)"Native range:  India, China and Indonesia." (1)Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.  (2)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/terminalia_myriocarpa.htm
2.05 (1)Introduced to Hawaii and Puerto Rico.  (2)Introduced to Panama. (1)http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=TEMY   (2)http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast
3.01 "In Hawai‘i, over 26,000 trees planted for reforestation, now naturalized at least on Kaua‘i, Maui and Hawai‘i ." http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/terminalia_myriocarpa.htm
3.02 No evidence  
3.03 No evidence  
3.04 Other than being listed to be invasive in Hawaii, there is no evidence of this species being an environmental weed in Hawaii or elsewhere. http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/terminalia_myriocarpa.htm
3.05 Terminalia oblongata is listed as a 'Principal' weed in Australia. Holm, LeRoy G., Pancho, Juan V., Herberger, James, P. and Plucknett, Donald L. 1991. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Krieger Publishing Company. Malabar. Florida. Page 360.
4.01 No evidence of such structures.  
4.02 No evidence.  
4.03 No evidence  
4.04 Don’t know  
4.05 No evidence  
4.06 (1)The following insects and fungi were listed to be associated with Terminalia myriocarpa:                                                                           Fomes pachyphloeus fungus 
Schizophyllum commune (wood rot) fungus 
Auletobius fulginousus insect 
Lymantria bivittata insect 
Lymantria mathura (pink gypsy moth) insect 
Thamnurgides glandis insect                           (2)Lymantria mathura (pink gypsy moth) - is a recognized economic pest -"The pink gypsy moth, Lymantria mathura is a major defoliator of deciduous trees in the Palearctic, primarily in eastern Asia from India to the Russian Far East." "Risks associated with L. mathura have been evaluated previously. In the Exotic Forest Pest Information system, L. mathura was considered to pose a very high risk to North America forests relative to other forest pests and pathogens, and this assessment was given with a very high degree of certainity." -  although its host range is very wide including 45 general and 24 families
Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
4.07 No evidence  
4.08 "It is known from rainforest areas of Bhutan, China (Xizhang), northeastern India, Sumatra, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam; from sea level up to 1500 m altitude (Lemmens et al., 1995; Luna, 1996). It is often found scattered along streams in evergreen hill forest. " [Probably not - an evergreen rainforest species]. Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
4.09 "It occurs on light to medium soil textures with free drainage; tolerates shade and naturally regenerates freely." Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
4.1 "It occurs on light to medium soil textures with free drainage." "Soil reaction: acid; neutral" [Probably not - pH range is narrow] Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
4.11 No evidence.  
4.12 No evidence.  
5.01 "T. myriocarpa is a large tree, frequently reaching 30-40 m in height and 65 cm dbh, with a clear bole of up to 18 m." Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
5.02    
5.03    
5.04    
6.01 No evidence.  
6.02 Seeds sold online. http://www.floralseeds.com/#T
6.03 "According to Parkinson (1936) affinity and intergrading is evident among the various varieties and forms of T. arjuna and T. tomentosa complexes (in section Pentaptera). It is difficult to suggest whether this is due to hybridization which has already been recognized in the genus and is probably common, or evolution/divergence due to changing environmental conditions, or both. While Hooker (1878) has described three varieties under T. tomentosa viz. typica (alata), crenulata and coriacea, Roth, Wight and Arnot (quoted by Hooker, 1878), Gamble (1915, 1920), Blatter (1929), Parkinson (1936), Bahadur & Gaur (1980) and Srivastav et al. (1992) have treated them as distinct species. Likewise, T. arjuna var. arjuna and T. arjuna var. angustifolia described by Hooker (1878) should also be treated as distinct species as T. glabra W. & A. and T. berryi W. & A. respectively (Parkinson, 1936; Srivastav et al. 1992). Hybrids between entities from both complexes have also been reported (Haines, 1922). On the other hand Thwaites (quoted by Hooker, 1878) hints that T. arjuna and T. tomentosa are the same species." [Dont know - hybridization in known in the genus Terminalia but no evidence of hybrids of T. myriocarpa].  
6.04 Probably not - "Terminalias are predominantly outcrossing (Srivastav 1993; Parkinson 1936), and sexual recombination and segregation, together with mutations, and acted on by natural selection, are the sources of inter- as well as intraspecific variation in this genus." http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/w3354e/W3354E23.htm
6.05 Probably not - "Abstract: Studies on the pollination mechanisms of four species of genus Terminalia Linn. conducted at Central Tasar Research Training Institute, Ranchi revealed that pollination is entormophillous. Out of 22 insect pollinators collected a maximum number belonged to Lepidoptera (6), Diptera (6) and Hymenoptera (6) and bees play very important role in pollination." Srivatava, P. K. Pollination mechanisms in genus Terminalia Linn Indian Forester 119 (2) : 147-150 1993
6.06 No evidence of spread by vegetative means.  
6.07 Probably 4+ years sinc it is a large tree and recognized as a fast growing tree species. http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80a03e/80A03E0a.htm
7.01 Probably not - no evidence that the species inhabtis heavily trafficked areas.  
7.02 Probably yes - an agroforestry species valued for its wood. Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
7.03 Probably not - no evidence that the species grown near seed crop fields. Also seeds seem to be relatively large - "Fruit ellipsoid, compressed or obscurely 3-angled, 0.3-0.4 cm long, 0.1-0.15 cm wide, expanded laterally into 2 wings 5-6 mm long, sometimes with a small third wing." http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/terminalia_myriocarpa.htm
7.04 (1)"Fruit ellipsoid, compressed or obscurely 3-angled, 0.3-0.4 cm long, 0.1-0.15 cm wide, expanded laterally into 2 wings 5-6 mm long, sometimes with a small third wing." (2)Dispersal syndrom - wind. (1)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/terminalia_myriocarpa.htm   (2)http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pdf/op65.pdf
7.05 No evidence.  
7.06 No evidence.  
7.07 No evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment.  
7.08 No evidence.  
8.01 Probabaly not - relatively large seeds.  "Fruit ellipsoid, compressed or obscurely 3-angled, 0.3-0.4 cm long, 0.1-0.15 cm wide, expanded laterally into 2 wings 5-6 mm long, sometimes with a small third wing."  
8.02 Seed storage is orthodox. [No evidence regarding longevity of seeds]. Reproduced from the Forestry Compendium. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005.
8.03 No evidence that the species is being controlled for.  
8.04 Don’t know  
8.05 Don’t know  

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This page created 23 December 2006