Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Stenotaphrum secundatum; St. Augustine grass

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

y

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

15

Source

Notes

1.01

(1) Sauer, J. D. (1972) Revision of Stenotaphrum (Gramineae: Paniceae) with attention to its historical geography. Brittonia, 1972, Vol.24, No.2, pp.202-222, 10 ref.
(2) Busey, P. (1995) Genetic diversity and vulnerability of St. Augustinegrass. Crop Science, 1995, Vol.35, No.2, pp.322-327, 60 ref. (3)http://floridaturf.com/staugust/origins.htm

(1) AB: "S. secundatum includes fertile diploids and sterile polyploids and is widely distributed in both forms."
(2) AB: St. Augustinegrass, Stenotaphrum secundatum , is expanding rapidly as a lawn grass, due especially to urban development in warm coastal areas, where it is best adapted. Although first discovered in South Carolina in 1788, St. Augustinegrass may not be native to North America. The six other species of the genus are endemic to the Old World, and are still confined mainly along shorelines from Africa to the South Pacific. The first recorded use of St. Augustinegrass was in 1880, as a lawn in Florida. Cultivars were named beginning in the 1920s. The first cultivar of known parentage was released in 1980. Genetic diversity in the urban landscape is reduced by reliance on a few vegetatively propagated cultivars. Among breeding collections of St. Augustinegrass, considerable diversity exists for diploids, but not for polyploids. (3) [cultivars have been bred and selected in Florida since the 18

1.02

(1)Stefanak, M. (1985) Stenotaphrum secundatum a new adventive species in Greece. Zizaniologia, 1985, Vol.1, No.4, pp.243-245, 13 ref. (2)Hickman. Jepson Manual (3)Wunderlin, R. P. 1998, Guide to the vascular plants of Florida. Gainesville, University Press of Florida.

(1) The morphological and biological characteristics and the geographical distribution of S. secundatum (Walter) O. Kuntze are described. The species was probably introduced into Greece along with the seeds of other lawn grass species and it has since spread. It is well adapted to warm, dry conditions. The possibility of it becoming a serious weed are considered. (2)Fields and roadsides of California (3) riverbanks, hammocks, disturbed sites, frequent

1.03

no evidence

2.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?35523 (12 June 2002)

Distributional range:
Native: (links to other web resources are provided for some U.S. state distributions)
Africa: Cameroon; Cote D'Ivoire; Ghana; Liberia; Nigeria; Senegal; Sierra Leone
Northern America: Mexico [e.]; United States - Florida, Georgia [s.e.], Louisiana [s.], Mississippi [s.], North Carolina [e.], South Carolina, Texas
Southern America: Antigua and Barbuda; Argentina [n.e.]; Bahamas; Belize; Brazil [e.]; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; French Guiana; Guadeloupe; Guatemala; Guyana; Hispaniola; Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Nicaragua; Panama; Puerto Rico; St. Kitts and Nevis; St. Lucia; Suriname; Uruguay; Venezuela [n.]
Other: widely naturalized, exact native range obscure

2.02

2.03

(1) Horticopia A-Z.Horticopia, Inc., Purcellville, VA. ISBN 1-887215-07-7.
(2) USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?35523 (12 June 2002) (3)http://www.boprc.govt.nz/www/green/weed32.htm (4)http://www.outsidepride.com/infostaugustinegrass.asp

(1) Hardiness Range 7B to 11
(2) Distributional range:
Native: (links to other web resources are provided for some U.S. state distributions)
Africa: Cameroon; Cote D'Ivoire; Ghana; Liberia; Nigeria; Senegal; Sierra Leone
Northern America: Mexico [e.]; United States - Florida, Georgia [s.e.], Louisiana [s.], Mississippi [s.], North Carolina [e.], South Carolina, Texas
Southern America: Antigua and Barbuda; Argentina [n.e.]; Bahamas; Belize; Brazil [e.]; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; French Guiana; Guadeloupe; Guatemala; Guyana; Hispaniola; Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Nicaragua; Panama; Puerto Rico; St. Kitts and Nevis; St. Lucia; Suriname; Uruguay; Venezuela [n.]
Other: widely naturalized, exact native range obscure
(3)Coastal sand country, and on other soil types near the coast.[New Zealand] (4)St. Augustine is primarily a coastal pioneer. It occurs from sea level up to 800 m. (due to cold and frost tolerance).

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?35523 (12 June 2002)

Distributional range:
Native: (links to other web resources are provided for some U.S. state distributions)
Africa: Cameroon; Cote D'Ivoire; Ghana; Liberia; Nigeria; Senegal; Sierra Leone
Northern America: Mexico [e.]; United States - Florida, Georgia [s.e.], Louisiana [s.], Mississippi [s.], North Carolina [e.], South Carolina, Texas
Southern America: Antigua and Barbuda; Argentina [n.e.]; Bahamas; Belize; Brazil [e.]; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; French Guiana; Guadeloupe; Guatemala; Guyana; Hispaniola; Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Nicaragua; Panama; Puerto Rico; St. Kitts and Nevis; St. Lucia; Suriname; Uruguay; Venezuela [n.]
Other: widely naturalized, exact native range obscure

2.05

(1) Pares, R. D.; Gillings, M. R. (1990) Two new records of diseases caused by potyviruses in Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology, 1990, Vol.19, No.2, pp.36-37, 18 ref.
(2) Razmjoo, K.; Imada, T.; Kaneko, S. (1994) Warm-season turfgrass species quality and disease resistance in Japan. Journal of the Sports Turf Research Institute, 1994, Vol.70, pp.133-138, 4 ref.
(3) Chang ShiowYann; Chang YuSen (1996) A survey of adaptability on the common turfgrasses in Taiwan parks. Memoirs of the College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University, 1996, Vol.36, No.3, pp.151-163, 22 ref.
(4) Evaluation of the adaptability of warm season turfgrasses to cultivation in central Italy. [FT: Valutazione dell'adattabilità di specie graminacee macroterme da tappeti erbosi alle condizioni ambientali dell'Italia centrale.] Italus Hortus, 1996, Vol.3, No.5, pp.10-16, 12 ref.

(1) Australia (2) Japan (3) Taiwan (4) Italy

3.01

(1)Stefanak, M. (1985) Stenotaphrum secundatum a new adventive species in Greece. Zizaniologia, 1985, Vol.1, No.4, pp.243-245, 13 ref. (2)Hickman. Jepson Manual (3)Wunderlin, R. P. 1998, Guide to the vascular plants of Florida. Gainesville, University Press of Florida.

(1) The morphological and biological characteristics and the geographical distribution of S. secundatum (Walter) O. Kuntze are described. The species was probably introduced into Greece along with the seeds of other lawn grass species and it has since spread. It is well adapted to warm, dry conditions. The possibility of it becoming a serious weed are considered. (2)Fields and roadsides of California (3) riverbanks, hammocks, disturbed sites, frequent

3.02

no evidence

3.03

Bacon, P., P.J. Terry, N. Waltham, & P.Castro S. (1997) An Electronic Atlas of World Weed and Invasive Plants. Version 1.0, 1997. A database based on the original work "A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds" by Holm et al 1979.

It was listed as a common weed in Puerto Rico.

3.04

http://www.boprc.govt.nz/www/green/weed32.htm

Spreads strongly into coastal environments, especially on sand country. Deeply smothers the smaller native plants, and adversely affects the regeneration opportunities for coastal trees such as pohutukawa.

3.05

no evidence

4.01

Drake, R. & M. Griffiths eds. (1994) Manual of Grasses. Timber Press, Inc., Portland, Oregon, USA. 169 pp. p.143

no description of these traits

4.02

Sutton, D. L.; Portier, K. M. (1989) Influence of allelochemicals and aqueous plant extracts on growth of duckweed. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 1989, Vol.27, pp.90-95, 22 ref.

AB: " Extracts from green (alive when collected) and brown (dead when collected) Casuarina sp. needles, and leaves of Lantana camara and Stenotaphrum secundatum were also found to inhibit growth of the duckweed plants."

4.03

no evidence

4.04

(1) Nada, Y. (1985) Palatability and adaptability of 10 tropical grasses used as grazing pasture in Kyushu. Journal of the Japanese Society of Grassland Science, 1985, Vol.30, No.4, pp.434-440, 14 ref.
(2) Ismail, T.; Chong, D. T. (1994) Sheep productivity grazing on naturalised and improved pasture. Sustainable animal production and the environment. Proceedings of the 7th AAAP Animal Science Congress, Bali Indonesia, 11-16, July, 1994.; Djajanegara, A.; Sukmawati, A. Eds. Volume 2: contributed papers., 1994, pp.493-494, 1 ref.

(1) AB: 10 tropical grass spp. which survived winter conditions at Nishigoshi were studied for seasonal productivity and palatability to cattle. Intake ratio of sorghum cv. Silk and Axonopus compressus was high, of Stenotaphrum secundatum, Paspalum urvillei, Panicum virgatum, Scizachyrium scoparium and P. distichum was medium and of Cynodon dactylon cv. Common and Tifton and Eragrostis curvula was low. Percentage DM and palatability were negatively correlated. All spp., except E. curvula had good persistence. A. compressus, P. distichum and P. urvillei showed increasing productivity during the summer, while both C. dactylon cv. showed stable productivity and the remaining spp. showed decreasing productivity. It was concluded that sorghum cv. Silk, A. compressus and P. urvillei were the most promising grasses for Kyushu.
(2) AB: A series of experiments on the productivity of sheep grazing on (a) naturalized forages under immature and mature rubber [Hevea brasiliensis ] trees and (b) improved pasture under

4.05

(1) Nada, Y. (1985) Palatability and adaptability of 10 tropical grasses used as grazing pasture in Kyushu. Journal of the Japanese Society of Grassland Science, 1985, Vol.30, No.4, pp.434-440, 14 ref.
(2) Ismail, T.; Chong, D. T. (1994) Sheep productivity grazing on naturalised and improved pasture. Sustainable animal production and the environment. Proceedings of the 7th AAAP Animal Science Congress, Bali Indonesia, 11-16, July, 1994.; Djajanegara, A.; Sukmawati, A. Eds. Volume 2: contributed papers., 1994, pp.493-494, 1 ref.

(1) AB: 10 tropical grass spp. which survived winter conditions at Nishigoshi were studied for seasonal productivity and palatability to cattle. Intake ratio of sorghum cv. Silk and Axonopus compressus was high, of Stenotaphrum secundatum, Paspalum urvillei, Panicum virgatum, Scizachyrium scoparium and P. distichum was medium and of Cynodon dactylon cv. Common and Tifton and Eragrostis curvula was low. Percentage DM and palatability were negatively correlated. All spp., except E. curvula had good persistence. A. compressus, P. distichum and P. urvillei showed increasing productivity during the summer, while both C. dactylon cv. showed stable productivity and the remaining spp. showed decreasing productivity. It was concluded that sorghum cv. Silk, A. compressus and P. urvillei were the most promising grasses for Kyushu.
(2) AB: A series of experiments on the productivity of sheep grazing on (a) naturalized forages under immature and mature rubber [Hevea brasiliensis ] trees and (b) improved pasture under

4.06

(1) Reinert, J. A.; Read, J. C.; Engelke, M. C.; Colbaugh, P. F.; Maranz, S. J.; Wiseman, B. R. (1998) Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda resistance in turfgrass. Mededelingen - Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 1998, Vol.63, No.2b, pp.467-471, 15 ref.
(2) Garrido, M. J.; Ferreira, I. C.; Uzcátegui, R. C. de (1998) Identification of the SCMV-D virus of sugarcane infecting St. Augustine grass in Venezuela. [FT: Identificación de la raza D del virus del mosaico de la cãna de azúcar infectando grama San Agustín en Venezuela.] Interciencia, 1998, Vol.23, No.2, pp.107-112, 33 ref.
(3) Howard, F. W. (1990) Evaluation of Brachiaria and St. Augustine grasses as breeding hosts of Myndus crudus Van Duzee (Homoptera: Cixiidae), a vector of the lethal yellowing disease of palms. Beiträge zur Tropischen Landwirtschaft und Veterinärmedizin, 1990, Vol.28, No.4, pp.425-430, 25 ref.

(1) AB: "Spodoptera frugiperda is a primary pest of turfgrass across the USA. Resistance to the pest has been identified among several grass species that are used for turfgrass." " No resistance was identified in two diploid B. dactyloides cv. Stampede and UCR-95, or among other cultivars of Z. matrella or Z. japonica Steud or in Cynodon dactylon , C. dactylon x C. transvaalensis and Stenotaphrum secundatum ."
(2) AB: "A virus isolate collected in a commercial crop of St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum ) in Turmero, Aragua State, Venezuela, was identified following mechanical inoculation into different hosts. The virus infected sorghum cultivars, maize and the sugarcane cultivars CP-31294 and CP-31588, but did not infect oats, barley, wheat, johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense ), and some dicotyledonous species."
(3) AB: Myndus crudus is a vector of mycoplasma-like organisms that cause lethal yellowing (LY) in palms. The nymphs develop in the root zones of grasses, so management of the grasses un

4.07

no evidence

4.08

possibly, if dry

4.09

(1) Morton, S. J.; Engelke, M. C.; White, R. H. (1989) Performance of four warm-season turfgrass genera cultured in dense shade. II. Stenotaphrum secundatum . Progress Report - Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1991, No.4881/4921, pp.49-50, 2 ref.
(2) Busey, P.; Davies, E. H. (1991) Turfgrass in the shade environment. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 1991, Vol.104, pp.353-358, 15 ref.
(3) Wells, D. W.; Constantin, R. J. (1983) Turfgrasses compared in dense shade. Louisiana Agriculture, 1983, Vol.26, No.4, pp.22-23

(1) AB: All 26 entries of the 1989 National Turf Evaluation Program St. Augustinegrass trial (including commercial cultivars Raleigh, Sunclipse, Bitterblue and Floratam) plus 2 Dallas experimental lines were planted during 1990 in parkland conditions with only 15% full sunlight. Acceptable canopy density was observed for 6 of the experimental lines, including DALSA8402 from Dallas, but none of the commercial lines could be included in this category. FX313, FX33 and M1 showed an increase in density by late summer. Excellent colour quality was noted for 7 lines, including FX313, S67-72-107, Delmar and Jade. Generally, these grasses spread quickly and extensively and 8 lines produced stolons of at least 30 cm. Poorest development was observed for FX33, FX10 and Bitterblue.
(2) AB: Marked differences in shade tolerance exist between the turfgrass species and cultivars of importance in Florida gardens and landscapes. The literature is discussed and some results given of trials with St. Augustine grass [Stenota

4.1

(1) Dudeck, A. E. (1990) Influence of planting method, fertility program, cultivar, and soil type on St. Augustinegrass. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 1990, Vol.103, pp.355-360, 7 ref.
(2) Horticopia A-Z.Horticopia, Inc., Purcellville, VA. ISBN 1-887215-07-7.

(1) AB: "Different vegetative planting methods and spacings were evaluated for the production of Stenotaphrum secundatum turf. The greatest coverage rate on both clay and sand soils for cv. Floratam was obtained with 4-inch plugs planted one ft apart (59 and 55%, respectively, during the growing season). "
(2) "Soil Condition Loamy, sandy, clay, acidic, neutral, slightly alkaline"

4.11

Dehgan, B. (1998) Landscape Plants for Subtropical Climates. University Press of Florida., Gainesville, FL. 638pp. p.193

low-growing lawn grasses

4.12

Dehgan, B. (1998) Landscape Plants for Subtropical Climates. University Press of Florida., Gainesville, FL. 638pp. p.193

low-growing lawn grasses

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

Poaceae

5.03

grass

5.04

low-growing lawn grasses

6.01

no evidence

6.02

(1) Sauer, J. D. (1972) Revision of Stenotaphrum (Gramineae: Paniceae) with attention to its historical geography. Brittonia, 1972, Vol.24, No.2, pp.202-222, 10 ref.
(2) Riordan, T. P.; Mixson, W. C.; Meier, V. D. (1991) Registration of 'DelMar' St. Augustinegrass. Crop Science, 1991, Vol.31, No.2, p.482

(1) AB: "S. secundatum includes fertile diploids and sterile polyploids and is widely distributed in both forms."
(2) AB: "Released in 1986, the Stenotaphrum secundatum cv. DelMar (PI542966) was selected from the progeny of a controlled pollination of cv. Seville with pollen from a cold-tolerant selection obtained from Memphis, Tennessee. "

6.03

no evidence

6.04

no evidence

6.05

wind

6.06

Dehgan, B. (1998) Landscape Plants for Subtropical Climates. University Press of Florida., Gainesville, FL. 638pp. p.193

"Fruit: seed-like grain (caryopsis), sterile.[polyploidy cultivars] Spreads by thick fleshy stolons. Propasgation: sod of cultivars; new seeded types are not widely available and expensive."

6.07

based on it being a fast growing grass

7.01

lawn clippings/yeard waste

7.02

(1) Mullen, B. F.; Shelton, H. M. (1996) Stenotaphrum secundatum : a valuable forage species for shaded environments. Tropical Grasslands, 1996, Vol.30, No.3, pp.289-297, 46 ref.
(2) Busey, P. (1995) Genetic diversity and vulnerability of St. Augustinegrass. Crop Science, 1995, Vol.35, No.2, pp.322-327, 60 ref.

(1) AB: "The potential of S. secundatum (buffalo grass) as a forage species for ruminants is reviewed. Buffalo grass has been used as a pasture grass to a limited extent in Florida, the Caribbean, the Pacific Islands and Australia."
(2) AB: "St. Augustinegrass, Stenotaphrum secundatum , is expanding rapidly as a lawn grass, due especially to urban development in warm coastal areas, where it is best adapted. Although first discovered in South Carolina in 1788, St. Augustinegrass may not be native to North America. The six other species of the genus are endemic to the Old World, and are still confined mainly along shorelines from Africa to the South Pacific. The first recorded use of St. Augustinegrass was in 1880, as a lawn in Florida. Cultivars were named beginning in the 1920s. The first cultivar of known parentage was released in 1980."

7.03

Stefanak, M. (1985) Stenotaphrum secundatum a new adventive species in Greece. Zizaniologia, 1985, Vol.1, No.4, pp.243-245, 13 ref.

AB: "The species was probably introduced into Greece along with the seeds of other lawn grass species and it has since spread." [intentional or unintentional?]

7.04

no evidence

7.05

no evidence

7.06

no evidence

7.07

no evidence

7.08

no evidence

8.01

(1)Dehgan, B. (1998) Landscape Plants for Subtropical Climates. University Press of Florida., Gainesville, FL. 638pp. p.193 (2)http://www.outsidepride.com/infostaugustinegrass.asp

(1)"Fruit: seed-like grain (caryopsis), sterile.[polyploidy cultivars] Spreads by thick fleshy stolons. Propasgation: sod of cultivars; new seeded types are not widely available and expensive." (2)seed production is very poor.

8.02

Dehgan, B. (1998) Landscape Plants for Subtropical Climates. University Press of Florida., Gainesville, FL. 638pp. p.194

"Fruit: seed-like grain (caryopsis), sterile.[polyploidy cultivars] Spreads by thick fleshy stolons. Propasgation: sod of cultivars; new seeded types are not widely available and expensive."

8.03

(1) Dicamba at 2.4 kg/ha applied as a single treatment or repeated after 4 weeks effectively controls the lawn weeds Alternanthera pungens and Brayulinea densa. In this study, dicamba was applied at 2 kg/ha in February and November to a range of turf grass species and cvs. in order to test their tolerance to the herbicide; observations were made from 3 days to 12 weeks after the application. "Of the other grasses, injury to Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) and St. Augustine (Stenotaphrum secundatum) was severe whereas on Swazi (Digitaria swazilandensis) and zoysia (Zoysia japonica) it was not significant. All the grasses recovered from the injury after varying lengths of time." (2)Spray with Roundup herbicide, 150 ml to 15 l Knapsack with addition of Pulse.

8.04

tolerates frequent mowing, progation by vegetative fragments

8.05

Murdoch, C. L.; Tashiro, H.; Tavares, J. W.; Mitchell, W. C. (1990) Economic damage and host preference of lepidopterous pests of major warm season turfgrasses of Hawaii. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society, 1990, Vol.No. 30, pp.63-70, 11 ref.

AB: "The effects of different larval densities of the 4 major lepidopterous pests of turfgrasses in Hawaii, Herpetogramma licarsisalis, Spodoptera mauritia, Agrotis ipsilon and Hylephila phylaeus", "All larvae of H. phylaeus fed St. Augustinegrass, Stenotaphrum secundatum, died after 7-8 days."