Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Sambucus mexicana


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 9


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Sambucus mexicana K. Presl ex A. DC Family - Caprifoliaceae . Common Names(s) - Mexican Elderberry. Synonym(s) - S. bipinnata Schlechtendal & Chamisso.; Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis (L.) R. Bolli

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

0

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

2+

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

9

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Sambucus mexicana K. Presl ex DC...Taxonomic Status: Current Standing: not accepted - synonym...Accepted Name(s): Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis (L.) R. Bolli [taxonomy in question...S. mexicana is a synonym for S. nigra ssp. canadensis] (2)The elderberry species cultivated and naturalized in Hawaii has long been called S. mexicana, a species native from Texas and California through Mexico and widely planted throughout tropical America. (3)Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold frame, when it should germinate in early spring. Stored seed can be sown in the spring in a cold frame but will probably germinate better if it is given 2 months warm followed by 2 months cold stratification first [suggests that seeds germinate better with cold stratification, but does not indicate it is required...See Ref. 4] (4)They must be warm stratified at temperatures between 70-85 degrees before being sown in spring or fall, and usually germinating on the second spring, and can be field planting the following spring. [no mention of cold stratification requirements]

(1)http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=35323&print_version=PRT&source=to_print [Accessed 01 July 2009] (2)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (3)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Sambucus+mexicana [Accessed 30 June 2009]

2.02

(1)(1)Sambucus mexicana K. Presl ex DC...Taxonomic Status: Current Standing: not accepted - synonym...Accepted Name(s): Sambucus nigra ssp. canadensis (L.) R. Bolli [native range questionable due to uncertain taxonomy...S. mexicana is a synonym for S. nigra ssp. canadensis]

2.03

(1)USDA hardiness zones: 7B through 10 [mostly tolerant of cooler climates, but broad elevation range. See reference 2] (2)Open flats and cismontane valleys and canyons below 1850 metres in California[71]. Oak forests along streams and ditches, 1800 - 3000 metres in Mexico [elevation range of over 1000 m] (3)Hardiness: USDA Zone 7b: to -14.9 °C (5 °F) USDA Zone 8a: to -12.2 °C (10 °F) USDA Zone 8b: to -9.4 °C (15 °F) USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F) USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F) USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F)

(1)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009] (2)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Sambucus+mexicana [Accessed 30 June 2009] (3)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/57571/ [Accessed 30 June 2009]

2.04

(1)in Hawaii commonly cultivated and sparingly naturalized or escaping in cool, mesic to wet areas in Kokee State Park, Kauai, on Oahu, East Maui and scattered localities on Hawaii. (2)Sambucus mexicana (Mexican elder) is fairly common on Tutuila, both as an ornamental and naturalized in open areas. It is also present on Ta'u.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. (2)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu.

2.05

(1)The elderberry species cultivated and naturalized in Hawaii has long been called S. mexicana, a species native from Texas and California through Mexico and widely planted throughout tropical America. (2)Sambucus mexicana C.Presl ex DC.Introduced ornamental. Southwestern N America. Shrub. Planted in villages. N: F & K.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)Franklin, J., G. Keppel, and W. A. Whistler. 2008. The vegetation and flora of Lakeba, Nayau and Aiwa Islands,Central Lau Group, Fiji. Micronesica 40(1/2): 169–225.

3.01

(1)in Hawaii commonly cultivated and sparingly naturalized or escaping in cool, mesic to wet areas in Kokee State Park, Kauai, on Oahu, East Maui and scattered localities on Hawaii. (2)Sambucus mexicana (Mexican elder) is fairly common on Tutuila, both as an ornamental and naturalized in open areas. It is also present on Ta'u.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. (2)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu.

3.02

(1)in Hawaii commonly cultivated and sparingly naturalized or escaping in cool, mesic to wet areas in Kokee State Park, Kauai, on Oahu, East Maui and scattered localities on Hawaii. [no mention of negative impacts] (2)Sambucus mexicana (Mexican elder) is fairly common on Tutuila, both as an ornamental and naturalized in open areas. It is also present on Ta'u. [mentioned as potential environmental weed]

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. (2)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu.

3.03

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/sambucus_mexicana/ [Accessed 01 July 2009]

3.04

(1)Referred to as an environmental weed, but no mention of impacts to native ecosystems or biodiversity in listed references.

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/sambucus_mexicana/ [Accessed 01 July 2009]

3.05

(1)This plant is highly invasive and extremely difficult to eradicate as the roots are anything up to 1 metre below the surface. Anyone contemplating planting dwarf elder should consider whether they wish to have their garden invaded in this manner. In France we have a neighbour with a large clump of it in his field and we are now fighting to exclude it from our garden. So far radical cutting of the growing stems seems to be the only way. It is a true pest in the garden. [Sambucus ebulus] (2)Sambucus nigra invades natural areas [a likely synonym for S. mexicana] (3)Sambucus nigra...Can form dense stands that prevent other species from establishing. (4)The following species are listed as weeds of one kind or another: Sambucus australasica (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus callicarpa (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus canadensis (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus cerulea (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus chinensis (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus ebulus (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus gaudichaudiana (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus glauca (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus javanica (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus mexicana (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus nigra (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus pubens (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus racemosa (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus rupestris (Caprifoliaceae) Sambucus simpsonii (Caprifoliaceae)

(1)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Sambucus+ebulus [Accessed 01 July 2009] (2)Weber, E. 2005. Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. (3)http://ccc.govt.nz/Reports/ParksBotanist/CCCECO0308.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009] (4)http://www.hear.org/gcw/scientificnames/scinames.htm [Accessed 01 July 2009]

4.01

(1)Shrubs to small trees 3-5(-10) m tall, essentially glabrous throughout.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

4.02

(1)Twenty-four aromatic metabolites belonging to cyanogenins, lignans, flavonoids, and phenolic glycosides were obtained from Sambucus nigra. Structures were determined on the basis of their spectroscopic features. Two compounds have been isolated and identified as (2S)-2-O-β-Image glucopyranosyl-2-hydroxyphenylacetic acid and benzyl 2-O-β-Image -glucopyranosyl-2,6-dihydroxybenzoate. All the compounds have been assayed on dicotyledons Lactuca sativa (lettuce) and Raphanus sativus (radish) and monocotyledon Allium cepa (onion) to test their stimulatory or inhibitory effects on seed germination and radicle elongation. Cyanogenins have a mainly inhibiting effect while lignans stimulate the growth. Some compounds show different effects on dicotyledons and monocotyledons...Weed interference, which consists of the effects of competition and/or allelopathy, represents a serious threat to several crops. Sambucus nigra L., a shrub widely found throughout Italy, causes large crops losses, and, in a previous study Jensen and Nielsen (1973) reported the presence of cyanogenic glycosides. These compounds are considered highly phytotoxic since the action of microbes in the rhizosphere produces HCN and benzaldehydes (Conn, 1981). [S. nigra, a synonym of S. mexicana, is allelopathic in greenhouse trials, but unknown if S. mexicana is allelopathic under field conditions]

(1)D’Abrosca, B., M. DellaGreca, A. Fiorentino, P. Monaco, L. Previtera, A. M. Simonet, and A. Zarrelli. 2001. Potential allelochemicals from Sambucus nigra. Phytochemistry 58: 1073–1081.

4.03

(1)Shrubs to small trees 3-5(-10) m tall, essentially glabrous throughout.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

4.04

(1)do not reach this height as they grow wider than tall. The light green, thick, leathery, pinnately compound leaves are often browsed by deer and livestock. (2)Cattle browse common shrubs in the Monument, including Symphoricarpos albus, Populus spp., Sambucus mexicana, Salix spp., Ribes spp., Amelanchier alnifolia, and Ceanothus cuneatus, especially in drought years (BLM Range Technician comments; Mitchell and Rogers 1985; Kie and Boroski 1996). (3)Livestock: Elderberry is a useful range plant for domestic livestock, but is not equally palatable during all seasons. It is usually receives limited browsing in the spring and to a much greater extent in the late summer and fall. The leaves are eagerly devoured after the first heavy frost in the fall. Because many branches are beyond the reach of the animals, utilization is less destructive. Browse rating: Good for goats; good to fair for sheep; good to poor for deer; fair for cattle; and fair to poor for horses (Sampson and Jesperson 1981).

(1)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009] (2)Hosten, P. E., H. Whitridge, D. Schuster, and J. Alexander. 2007. Livestock on the Cascade-Siskiyou National Monument: A Summary of Stocking Rates, Utilization, and Management. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Medford District. http://soda.sou.edu/bioregion.html (3)plants.usda.gov/plantguide/doc/cs_sanic4.doc [Accessed 01 July 2009]

4.05

(1)The following list of plants are toxic and should never be fed to your pets: [includes Elderberry – Sambucus mexicana…but no mention of toxicity to browsing animals which can apparently eat plant at least at certain growth stages. See 4.04]

(1)http://www.azeah.com/Care-Sheets.asp?id=193 [Accessed 01 July 2009]

4.06

(1)Pest resistance: no pests are normally seen on the tree...No pests or diseases of major concern.

(1)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009]

4.07

(1)7. Elderberry (Sambucus Mexicana) Toxic properties: Most parts of the plant are toxic. Only ripe fruit (the blue or purple berries of elderberry) are edible. The red berries on plants which look nearly identical are toxic and should not be disturbed. The foliage contains a glycoside which may be fatal, especially in new growth. The active alkaloids in elderberry plants are hydrocyanic acid and sambucine. Cooking destroys the alkaloids and improves taste. Toxic symptoms: Closely resembles symptoms of intoxication, intestinal issues and possible cardiac arrest. Antidote: Diphosphate, sodium bicarbonate, magnesium, phenytoin and antidigoxin Fab antitoxin may help. (2)Toxicity: Major (ripe fruit is nontoxic) [Major Toxicity: These plants may cause serious illness or death. If ingested, immediately call the Poison Control Center or your doctor]

(1)http://www.empken.com/quailhollow/deadlytrail.pdf [Accessed 30 June 2009] (2)http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-taxon=Sambucus+mexicana [Accessed 01 July 2009]

4.08

(1)City of Newport Beach Urban Wildland Interface Area Standard for Hazard Reduction: Fire Resistive Plant List [includes Sambucus mexicana] (2)Fire Safe – Recommended by: County of San Diego…includes Sambucus mexicana [no evidence that species increases fire risk]

(1)http://www.newport-beach.ca.us/FMD/Fire%20Resistive%20Plant%20list/Fire%20Resistive%20Plant%20List%20Common%20Name.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009] (2)http://www.reconnativeplants.com/pdfs/Landscapefavs.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009]

4.09

(1)Elderberry thrives in moist, fertile soils in full sun or partial shade. [most references either suggest full sun or partial shade] (2)Light requirement: tree grows in full sun (3)It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade...Tolerates some shade but is best in a sunny position. (4)Sun Exposure: Full Sun

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009] (3)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Sambucus+mexicana [Accessed 30 June 2009] (4)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/57571/ [Accessed 30 June 2009]

4.10

(1)Soil tolerances: clay; loam; sand; acidic; alkaline; well-drained (2)Tolerates most soils, including chalk[200], but prefers a moist loamy soil[11, 200]. Grows well in heavy clay soils.

(1)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009] (2)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Sambucus+mexicana [Accessed 30 June 2009]

4.11

(1)Shrubs to small trees 3-5(-10) m tall, essentially glabrous throughout.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

4.12

(1)Often growing in dense groups at elevations up to 10,000'. (2)New shoots emerge from around the base of the plant, and a sizable thicket may form in time

(1)Petrides, G. A. 2005. Trees of the California Sierra Nevada. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA. (2)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst.2005. A tropical garden flora: plants cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and other tropical places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

5.02

(1)Caprifoliaceae

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

5.03

(1)Caprifoliaceae

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

5.04

(1)Shrubs to small trees 3-5(-10) m tall, essentially glabrous throughout.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009]

6.02

(1)Propagation is by seed.

(1)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009]

6.03

(1)Natural Sambucus hybrids are very rare. The hybrids between S. nigra and S. racemosa have been reported just in some places – in Denmark and Sweden (Mossberg and Steenberg 2003). Sambucus racemosa normally flowers several weeks before S. nigra (Atkinson and Atkinson 2002). [unknown if S. mexicana hybridizes naturally]

(1)http://www.nobanis.org/files/factsheets/Sambucus_nigra.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009]

6.04

(1)Most fertilization was effected by pollen from the same individual but from different flowers or inflorescences as pollen from another bush (Atkinson and Atkinson 2002 cit. Bolli 1994). [synonym or closely related species]

(1)http://www.nobanis.org/files/factsheets/Sambucus_nigra.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009]

6.05

(1)The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Insects.

(1)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Sambucus+mexicana [Accessed 30 June 2009]

6.06

(1)New shoots emerge from around the base of the plant, and a sizable thicket may form in time; digging up and replanting these root sprouts is one easy method of propagation. (2)Vegetative reproduction is limited to coppicing if the stems are killed or injured.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)plants.usda.gov/plantguide/doc/cs_sanic4.doc [Accessed 01 July 2009]

6.07

(1)Blue elderberry is a common shrub or tree that grows rapidly on brushy slopes, and in coastal sage scrub, chaparral, and oak woodlands. (2)Sambucus nigra usually flowers in its third or fourth year, rarely in its second [synonym or closely related species] (3)Plants may flower and fruit after only 2-3 years and can reach full size in 3-4 years. They are said to be “short-lived.”

(1)http://www.elkhornslough.org/plants/native_plants.PDF [Accessed 01 July 2009] (2)http://www.nobanis.org/files/factsheets/Sambucus_nigra.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009] (3)plants.usda.gov/plantguide/doc/cs_sanic4.doc [Accessed 01 July 2009]

7.01

(1)Mature fruit purplish black, 5-8 mm in diameter [no evidence, and no means of external attachment]

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

7.02

(1)Outstanding tree: tree has outstanding ornamental features and could be planted more

(1)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June2009]

7.03

(1)Mature fruit purplish black, 5-8 mm in diameter [fleshy-fruited] (2)Fruit characteristics: attracts birds; suited for human consumption; (3)The berries of S. mexicana are part of the food web for humans, bears, deer, elk, moose, and dozens of birds, including the California thrasher, russet-backed thrush, brown towhee, cedar waxwing, and wren-tit, which also serve as the dispersal mechanism for S. mexicana seed.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. (2)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June 2009] (3)http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/btraut/documents/Sambucusmexicanainfosheet.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009]

7.04

(1)Mature fruit purplish black, 5-8 mm in diameter [fleshy-fruited]

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

7.05

(1)naturalized populations often grow along streams or other wet areas at higher elevations where cooler temperatures prevail. (2)S. mexicana is a member of many diversified riparian regions throughout the California Floristic Province in areas under 3000 meters in elevation. It is common along stream banks but can be found in open coniferous forests, [riparain distribution suggests seeds may be water dispersed]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/btraut/documents/Sambucusmexicanainfosheet.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009]

7.06

(1)Mature fruit purplish black, 5-8 mm in diameter [fleshy-fruited] (2)Fruit characteristics: attracts birds; suited for human consumption; (3)The berries of S. mexicana are part of the food web for humans, bears, deer, elk, moose, and dozens of birds, including the California thrasher, russet-backed thrush, brown towhee, cedar waxwing, and wren-tit, which also serve as the dispersal mechanism for S. mexicana seed.

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. (2)http://hort.ufl.edu/trees/SAMMEXA.pdf [Accessed 29 June 2009] (3)http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/btraut/documents/Sambucusmexicanainfosheet.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009]

7.07

(1)Mature fruit purplish black, 5-8 mm in diameter [no means of external attachment]

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

7.08

(1)Mature fruit purplish black, 5-8 mm in diameter [fleshy-fruited]

(1)Wagner, W. L, D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

8.01

(1)The fruit is a berrylike drupe containing 3 to 5 one-seeded nutlets or stones. [unknown if relatively small trees can produce high seed densities]

(1)http://www.elkhornslough.org/plants/native_plants.PDF [Accessed 01 July 2009]

8.02

(1)It is often found in seral communities but can also be early to emerge after a fire as its hard seed coat is encouraged to germinate after some scarification...S. mexicana grows best from seed although, without proper pretreatment, germination can be delayed up to 5 years after planting. They must be warm stratified at temperatures between 70-85 degrees before being sown in spring or fall, and usually germinating on the second spring, and can be field planting the following spring. (2)Seeds may be stored in closed containers at low temperatures for several years. (3)The seeds have a hard seed coat and embryo dormancy and may remain viable for up to 16 years in storage. Without pretreatment, seed germination may be delayed from 2 to 5 years after planting.

(1)http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/btraut/documents/Sambucusmexicanainfosheet.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009] (2)Young, J. A., and C. G. Young. 1992. Seeds of Woody Plants in North America. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon. (3)plants.usda.gov/plantguide/doc/cs_sanic4.doc [Accessed 01 July 2009]

8.03

(1)The chemical control has better effects on young shrubs. Low-volume applications of a new herbicide, 1:1 -ethylene-2:2-dipyrilium dibromide gave good top-kill of various brush species, including S. nigra, though there was basal regeneration (CABI 2004 cit. Brian et al. 1958). Regular cutting combined with herbicides is another basic method to control S. nigra. The combination of cutting, burning and applying a drenching spray of 2,4- + 2,4,5-T in diesel oil or diesel and sump oil, on and around the cut stumps in the winter has proven effective. [synonym for S. mexicana or closely related species, S. mexicana likely controlled in similar manner]

(1)http://www.nobanis.org/files/factsheets/Sambucus_nigra.pdf [Accessed 01 July 2009]

8.04

(1)Vegetative reproduction is limited to coppicing if the stems are killed or injured...Fire kills above-ground parts but the root crown may sprout but a severe fire can kill the root and stem buds from which sprouting occurs.

(1)plants.usda.gov/plantguide/doc/cs_sanic4.doc [Accessed 01 July 2009]

8.05

Unknown


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