Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Pterocarpus indicus


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Evaluate, score: 4


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.

Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Pterocarpus indicus; (red sandalwood, Burmese rosewood)

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

n

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

4

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

No evidence

1.02

(1) Found in natural environments in Puerto Rico;Cuba;Trinidad-Tobago (2) "The major environmental weeds of Christmas Island are Adenanthera pavonina, Aleurites moluccana, Castilla elastica, Clausena excavata, Cordia curassavica, Delonix regia, Ficus elastica, Hevea brasiliensis, Mikania micrantha, Mucuna albertisii, Pithecellobium dulce, Pterocarpus indicus, Schefflera actinophylla, Spathodea campanulata and Tecoma stans . " [this reference a does not provide adequate evidence for threats caused by some of these species - it is speculative. Other Christmas island sources do not list P. indicus as a pest (e.g. http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/christmas/flora.html)]

(1)http://www.cabi-bioscience.org/Html/Table1.pdf (2)Swarbrick, J. T.; Hart, R. (2001) Environmental weeds of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) and their management. Plant Protection Quarterly, 2001, Vol.16, No.2, pp.54-57, 2 ref.

 

1.03

No evidence

2.01

P. indicus is widely distributed from southern Myanmar through South-East Asia, southern China, to the Santa Cruz and Pacific Islands

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

P. indicus has been introduced widely in areas such as southern Florida (USA), Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Guam, Hawaii (USA) and Honduras

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.03

(1)Altitude range: 0 - 1300 m
Approximate limits north to south: 20°N to 19°S (2) 'Probably ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, Malay Padauk is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.6 to 21.8 dm (mean of 10 cases = 16.4), annual temperature of 24.3 to 26.6°C (mean of 6 cases = 25.2), and estimated pH of 4.0 to 7.5. According to Rojo, it grows in forests, mostly evergreen, in the lowlands up to 600 m.Seems to prefer a seasonal climate, more everwet in New Guinea.' (3)'In Malaysia, its natural habitat is by the sea and along tidal creeks and rivers. Elsewhere (e.g., Papua New Guinea), it occurs in inland forests. In the Moluccas (Manupatty 1972- 1973), four varieties are locally recognized, which occupy a range of habitats from the coast to subnmontane forests and seasonal swamps.' (4) It is adapted to flat, coastal plains behind mangrove swamps and sites along streams, at low to medium elevations. In Papua New Guinea, it is particularly common i

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.(2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pterocarpus_indicus.html (3)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_indicus.html (4)http://ecocrop.fao.org/

2.04

P. indicus is widely distributed from southern Myanmar through South-East Asia, southern China, to the Santa Cruz and Pacific Islands

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.05

P. indicus has been introduced widely in areas such as southern Florida (USA), Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Guam, Hawaii (USA) and Honduras

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.01

(1) Found in natural environments in Puerto Rico;Cuba;Trinidad-Tobago (2) "The major environmental weeds of Christmas Island are Adenanthera pavonina, Aleurites moluccana, Castilla elastica, Clausena excavata, Cordia curassavica, Delonix regia, Ficus elastica, Hevea brasiliensis, Mikania micrantha, Mucuna albertisii, Pithecellobium dulce, Pterocarpus indicus, Schefflera actinophylla, Spathodea campanulata and Tecoma stans . " [this reference a does not provide adequate evidence for threats caused by some of these species - it is speculative. Other Christmas island sources do not list P. indicus as a pest (e.g. http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/christmas/flora.html)]

(1)http://www.cabi-bioscience.org/Html/Table1.pdf (2)Swarbrick, J. T.; Hart, R. (2001) Environmental weeds of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) and their management. Plant Protection Quarterly, 2001, Vol.16, No.2, pp.54-57, 2 ref.

 

3.02

No evidence

3.03

No evidence

3.04

AB: "The major environmental weeds of Christmas Island are Adenanthera pavonina, Aleurites moluccana, Castilla elastica, Clausena excavata, Cordia curassavica, Delonix regia, Ficus elastica, Hevea brasiliensis, Mikania micrantha, Mucuna albertisii, Pithecellobium dulce, Pterocarpus indicus, Schefflera actinophylla, Spathodea campanulata and Tecoma stans . " [this reference a does not provide adequate evidence for threats caused by some of these species - it is speculative. Other Christmas island sources do not list P. indicus as a pest (e.g. http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/christmas/flora.html)]

Swarbrick, J. T.; Hart, R. (2001) Environmental weeds of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) and their management. Plant Protection Quarterly, 2001, Vol.16, No.2, pp.54-57, 2 ref.

 

3.05

No evidence

4.01

No evidence

4.02

No evidence

4.03

No evidence

4.04

(1)Chart suggests that it is not used for fodder? (2)The most edible species have been recorded in the woody genera Acacia, Albizzia, Bauhinia , Erythrina, Leucaena, and Pterocarpus

(1)http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:DfsqNz6EpYIJ:agroforestry.net/pubs/nftguide.pdf+Pterocarpus+indicus+fodder&hl=en&ie=UTF-8 (2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/v1-391.html

4.05

No evidence

4.06

(1)P. indicus is not reported to be very susceptible to pest and disease attack. Pests recorded
Insect pests: Crossotarsus lecontei, Hyloconis, Metriona trisignata
Fungus diseases: Cercospora, Ganoderma lucidum
(2) This site lists 51 species of fungi to be associated with P. indicus.
(3) AB: Aristobia horridula (Hope) is reported as the most important stem borer of Pterocarpus macrocarpus in Thailand. Damage to P. macrocarpus plantation was as high as 83%. Besides P. macrocarpus , this insect attacks P. indicus and Dalbergia cochinchinensis . Preliminary trials indicated effectiveness of methamidophos, malathion and permethrin for control of the beetles. [this pest cause substantial damage to forest plantation and have limited host range ]

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.(2)http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/all/FindRecOneFungusFrame.cfm
(3) Hutacharern, C.; Panya, S. E. (1996) Biology and control of Aristobia horridula (Hope) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), a pest of Pterocarpus macrocarpus . ED: Nair, K. S. S.: Sharma, J. K.; Varma, R. V. Impact of diseases and insect pests in tropical forests. Proceedings of the IUFRO Symposium, Peechi, India, 23-26 November 1993., 1996, pp.392-397, 5 ref.

 

4.07

No evidence - 'The young leaves and flowers are said to be eaten. The flowers are a honey source. The leaf infusion is used as a shampoo.'

4.08

(1)Usually a deciduous tree … 'Being thin-barked, it is also susceptible to fire injury, but recuperates easily when damaged.' (2)but P. indicus is a rainforest or evergreen forest species (able to withstand dry areas). (3) 'In a non-seasonal humid tropical climate such as in Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, the trees are generally evergreen, but in regions with seasonal rainfall, the trees are deciduous.' [decreases flamability, mainly in wet habitats]

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pterocarpus_indicus.html (3)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_indicus.html

4.09

(1) 'P. indicus can be planted in partly shaded or open areas.' 'Tolerates drought; wind; shade.' 'It is a light-demanding species, and in natural conditions is often found as an element in the upper storey of the forest canopy, e.g. as a dominant tree with molave (Vitex parviflora) in the Philippines.' [conflicting information] (2)Requires very bright clear skies

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.ecoport.org/EP.exe$EntNameSrc

4.1

(1)Soil and physiography
P. indicus is easy to establish on a wide range of soils (Multipurpose Tree Species Research Network, 1994). It prefers low-lying, damp soils, and is commonly found growing in riparian habitats, or sites immediately behind mangrove swamps (Cadiz and Mizal, 1995). Occasionally trees may be found on drier slopes. It thrives best in moist, sandy loam or clay loam soil, along gullies and stream banks at low and medium altitudes (Uriarte and Aurora, 1994). P. indicus appears to thrive up to altitudes of 1300 m (Asiddao and Nastor, 1958; Cadiz and Mizal, 1989), although generally it is found in seasonal forests to 600 m (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993).
Descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral
- Special soil tolerances: shallow; infertile
- Soil types: sandy soils
(2)Soil texture - medium or light, deep (>150 cm)

(!)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.ecoport.org/EP.exe$EntNameSrc

4.11

Perennial non-climbing tree.

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb/6.00/taxa/1170.shtml

4.12

No evidence

5.01

No evidence

5.02

Fabaceae

5.03

Ability to fix nitrogen

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.04

No evidence

6.01

'In the Philippines, P. indicus usually flowers from as early as March to as late as September every year, but most young fruits develop during April-June, and mature from July to the following January. In other parts of the Western Pacific region, flowers are in profusion in October.'

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.02

(1)It has the ability to regenerate rapidly from seed. (2)'There are 1-3 seeds in each fruit. The seeds are difficult to extract, but will germinate readily through built-in weaknesses in the fruit wall; hence each fruit is able to function like a seed, but produces 1-3 seedlings. There is no advantage to extracting the seeds because the germination time and percentage are practically the same between whole fruits and extracted seeds.'

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_indicus.html

6.03

No evidence

6.04

'AB: "A minimum single-tree estimate of the outcrossing rate was computed for the isolated roadside tree no. 26 which proved to be homozygous at all investigated alloenzyme loci. The 'gene diversity' or 'differentiation within' genetically effective pollen pools of the seed trees was also observed. Three loci (IDH-A, MNR-C and SKDH-A) showed a high diversity in most pollen pools."

ET: The mating system of Pterocarpus indicus Willd. at Mt. Makiling, Philippines.

AU: Finkeldey, R.; Guzman, N. de; Changtragoon, S.

SO: Biotropica, 1999, Vol.31, No.3, pp.525-530, 20 ref.

6.05

AB: "Floral morphology of each of the reforestation species and insect foraging behaviour were described. A. auriculiformis exhibited an 'open' flower suggesting general mellitophily. Megachile sp. appeared to be an important visitor based on the pollen load and number of visits per spike per hour. The flower of P. indicus is specialized, requiring some tripping mechanism before the nectar and pollen can be extracted. The pollinators were medium to large-sized bees, notably Xylocopa sp. V. parviflora is likewise a bee flower, visited by several species of medium to large-sized bees. L. leucocephala was also visited by Xylocopa sp. and species of Vespidae. "

Escobin, R. P.; Cervancia, C. R. (1998) Insect floral visitors of four reforestation tree species in Mt. Makiling, Luzon Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, 1998, Vol.127, No.3, pp.169-180, 15 ref.

6.06

No evidence of vegetative propagation in the wild.

6.07

the initial growth of seedlings and saplings is relatively slow...The fruits take four months to mature [absolute minimum for slow growing large tree]

http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_indicus.html

7.01

Probably not - no evidence that the seeds have any means of attachment.

7.02

Probably yes - 'It can be planted as a species for agroforestry, reforestation, as an ornamental and avenue tree.'

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK:

7.03

Probably not - winged seed.

7.04

(1) 'pods indehiscent, flat, orbicular, ovate or falcate or winged; seed 1, rarely 2 -3.' (2) 'The glabrous, indehiscent pod is surrounded by a broad undulating wing.' (3) 'Unlike most legumes, the Pterocarpus fruit is indehiscent and dispersed by wind. It also floats in water and can be water-dispersed.'

(1)Bose, T K, Das, P and Maiti, G.G. 1998. Trees of the World. Regional Plant Resources Center. Orissa. India. (2)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (3)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_indicus.html

7.05

(1) 'pods indehiscent, flat, orbicular, ovate or falcate or winged; seed 1, rarely 2 -3.' (2) 'The glabrous, indehiscent pod is surrounded by a broad undulating wing.' (3) 'Unlike most legumes, the Pterocarpus fruit is indehiscent and dispersed by wind. It also floats in water and can be water-dispersed.'

(1)Bose, T K, Das, P and Maiti, G.G. 1998. Trees of the World. Regional Plant Resources Center. Orissa. India. (2)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (3)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_indicus.html

7.06

Probably not - 'pods indehiscent, flat, orbicular, ovate or falcate or winged; seed 1, rarely 2 -3.'

7.07

Probably not - no evidence that the seeds have any means of attachment.

7.08

Probably not - no evidence of ingestion.

8.01

few seeds per pod. (1)'pods indehiscent, flat, orbicular, ovate or falcate or winged; seed 1, rarely 2 -3.' (2)There are about 1200-1300 seeds/kg or approximately 140 seeds/litre (4)'Seeds 1–2, ca 2–5 by 8–10 mm, widest at or below the hilum; testa dark brown, smoothish. [relativley large seed size]

(1)Bose, T K, Das, P and Maiti, G.G. 1998. Trees of the World. Regional Plant Resources Center. Orissa. India. (2)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (4)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pterocarpus_indicus.html

8.02

(1) AB: Pterocarpus indicus is one of the most important species for plantation programmes in East Nusa Tenggara, and the quality of seeds has a significant effect on plantation success. Seed germination is an important parameter for determining seed quality. A completely random design was employed in this experiment with 3 replicates of 100 seeds, and seed storage duration's of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 months, under refrigerated conditions at 4 deg C. The effects of those treatments were measured on germination rate, germination value, and final germination percentage. The results showed that germination rate and value decreased with increasing storage duration. Seed germination was also affected by storage duration, with lower final germination percentages from longer storage. Storage for 6 months or more killed most of the seeds. Based on these results, it is recommended that storage be done for a maximum of 4 months.
(2) Seed collection and storage: P. indicus seeds are orthodox

ET: The effects of storage duration on seed germination of redwood (Pterocarpus indicus Wild.).
FT: Pengaruh penyimpanan terhadap perkecambahan benih kayu merah (Pterocarpus indicus Wild.).
AU: Effendi, M.; Sinaga, M.
SO: Buletin Penelitian Kehutanan - Kupang, 1996, Vol.1, No.1, pp.26-33, 10 ref.
(2) CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (3)http://www.winrock.org/FORESTRY/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS12.html

8.03

No evidence that the species is being controlled for.

8.04

(1) 'Being thin-barked, it is also susceptible to fire injury, but recuperates easily when damaged. It has good coppicing ability, …' (2)'Trees of all sizes and ages easily regenerate new shoots when lopped or pollarded. In Papua New-Guinea, logged forest trees readily regenerate new plants from the roots.'

(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: (2)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/P_indicus.html

8.05

Don’t know


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