Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Piper auritum


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 15


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments

Piper auritum Kunth Family - Piperaceae. Common Names(s) - Mexican Pepperleaf, Vera cruz pepper . Synonym(s) - .

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y= 1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

15

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)West Indies and on the mainland from Mexico through Central America and northern South America.

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

2.02

(1)West Indies and on the mainland from Mexico through Central America and northern South America.

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

2.03

(1)Piper auritum reproduces freely from roots or by natural dispersion of the seeds in the dry season when it tends to have more fruiting spikes. It is widespread in Panama in several different environments, and occurs from Mexico to Colombia, and in the West Indies, from sea level to 1,200 m (Croat, 1978, p. 331). [broad elevation range] (2)Altitude: Sea level to 1700 m.

(1)Joly, L. G. 1981. Feeding and Trapping Fish with Piper auritum. Economic Botany 35(4): 383-390. (2)Gargiullo, M. B., B. L. Magnuson, and L. D. Kimball. 2008. A field guide to plants of Costa Rica. Oxford University Press US, New York.

2.04

(1)West Indies and on the mainland from Mexico through Central America and northern South America.

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

2.05

(1)An invasive pest in Micronesia & other areas. Not recommended. (2)This plant was brought illegally to Pohnpei from Hawai‘i in 1999 as an alternative to kava (Piper methysticum). It has larger light green leaves. It sprouts prolifically from rhizomes and roots from the nodes. Currently an eradication program is in progress by using mechanical and chemical methods (Englberger 2001)...Attempts to eradicate I. conferta in Yap, P. auritum in Pohnpei and M. diplotricha in Guam by mechanical and chemical means are in progress. (3)Piper auritum was noted on all the islands visited (Tongatapu, ‘Eua, Vava‘u, Lifuka/Foa, Ha‘ano and ‘Uiha) and is probably present in other locations as well. This species appears to be well on its way to becoming a major pest and should be evaluated for eradication. A special effort should be made to eradicate this serious invader from all park or reserve lands. It should be noted that it was seen in the National Park on ‘Eua. (4)Comments: All three of the above species invade hardwood hammocks, especially margins and canopy gaps. {Florida] (5)False sakau is now a widespread weed in the Pacific and there is concern that it could become so in the Hawaiian Islands as well. Piper auritum is known to be cultivated in botanical gardens on Kaua‘i and O‘ahu and has also been documented in cultivation from Maui and Hawai‘i islands. The following specimens document its spread out of cultivation and its naturalization on two islands; it is to be expected that it will become naturalized everywhere it has been planted. Vigorous control measures are in order to prevent this aggressive weed from spreading beyond the few places where it is now established. Both O‘ahu populations are reported to be spreading rapidly from cultivated sources. Native to tropical America, P. auritum is a vigorous herb that reaches 2 m or more inheight from a suckering root system that spreads laterally through the soil. Leaves are large (to 50 cm long), horizontal and in 2 rows along the stem, the blades cordate with a deeply lobed, unequal-sided base and finely ciliate margins, on winged petioles to 6 cm long. Inflorescences are whitish or greenish spikes to 25 cm long, erect or drooping, borne singly opposite the leaves. Fruits are tiny, 3-angled, and densely packed on the fruiting axis. All parts of the plant have a sarsaparilla odor (smells like root beer) when bruised.

(1)Llamas, K. A. 2003. Tropical flowering plants: a guide to identification and cultivation. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (2)Muniappan, R., J. Cruz and J. Bamba. 2002. Invasive Plants and Their Control in Micronesia. Micronesica Suppl. 6: 85–92. (3)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, HI. (4)Langeland, K. A. and R. K. Stocker. 2001. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida, Revised edition. SP 242, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. (5)Staples, G. W., D. R. Herbst,

3.01

(1)An invasive pest in Micronesia & other areas. Not recommended. (2)This plant was brought illegally to Pohnpei from Hawai‘i in 1999 as an alternative to kava (Piper methysticum). It has larger light green leaves. It sprouts prolifically from rhizomes and roots from the nodes. Currently an eradication program is in progress by using mechanical and chemical methods (Englberger 2001)...Attempts to eradicate I. conferta in Yap, P. auritum in Pohnpei and M. diplotricha in Guam by mechanical and chemical means are in progress. (3)Piper auritum was noted on all the islands visited (Tongatapu, ‘Eua, Vava‘u, Lifuka/Foa, Ha‘ano and ‘Uiha) and is probably present in other locations as well. This species appears to be well on its way to becoming a major pest and should be evaluated for eradication. A special effort should be made to eradicate this serious invader from all park or reserve lands. It should be noted that it was seen in the National Park on ‘Eua. (4)Comments: All three of the above species invade hardwood hammocks, especially margins and canopy gaps. {Florida] (5)False sakau is now a widespread weed in the Pacific and there is concern that it could become so in the Hawaiian Islands as well. Piper auritum is known to be cultivated in botanical gardens on Kaua‘i and O‘ahu and has also been documented in cultivation from Maui and Hawai‘i islands. The following specimens document its spread out of cultivation and its naturalization on two islands; it is to be expected that it will become naturalized everywhere it has been planted. Vigorous control measures are in order to prevent this aggressive weed from spreading beyond the few places where it is now established. Both O‘ahu populations are reported to be spreading rapidly from cultivated sources. Native to tropical America, P. auritum is a vigorous herb that reaches 2 m or more inheight from a suckering root system that spreads laterally through the soil. Leaves are large (to 50 cm long), horizontal and in 2 rows along the stem, the blades cordate with a deeply lobed, unequal-sided base and finely ciliate margins, on winged petioles to 6 cm long. Inflorescences are whitish or greenish spikes to 25 cm long, erect or drooping, borne singly opposite the leaves. Fruits are tiny, 3-angled, and densely packed on the fruiting axis. All parts of the plant have a sarsaparilla odor (smells like root beer) when bruised.

(1)Llamas, K. A. 2003. Tropical flowering plants: a guide to identification and cultivation. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (2)Muniappan, R., J. Cruz and J. Bamba. 2002. Invasive Plants and Their Control in Micronesia. Micronesica Suppl. 6: 85–92. (3)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, HI. (4)Langeland, K. A. and R. K. Stocker. 2001. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida, Revised edition. SP 242, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. (5)Staples, G. W., D. R. Herbst,

3.02

(1)A year ago, I acquired a tiny plant from my father's NW Florida home. While he very much enjoyed them, they did freeze back each year. Well, I do not recommend them for SW Florida. This creature has become 10 feet tall with runners popping up everywhere. It's a lovely plant but needs to be container grown in the South. Never let it loose!

(1)Dave's Garden. 2010. PlantFiles: Root Beer Plant, Hoja Santa, Mexican Pepperleaf Piper auritum. http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/530/ [Accessed 12 Mar 2010]

3.03

(1)No evidence

(1)Randall, R. 2007. Global Compendium of Weeds. http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/piper_auritum/ [Accessed 12 Mar 2010]

3.04

(1)An invasive pest in Micronesia & other areas. Not recommended. (2)This plant was brought illegally to Pohnpei from Hawai‘i in 1999 as an alternative to kava (Piper methysticum). It has larger light green leaves. It sprouts prolifically from rhizomes and roots from the nodes. Currently an eradication program is in progress by using mechanical and chemical methods (Englberger 2001)...Attempts to eradicate I. conferta in Yap, P. auritum in Pohnpei and M. diplotricha in Guam by mechanical and chemical means are in progress. (3)Piper auritum was noted on all the islands visited (Tongatapu, ‘Eua, Vava‘u, Lifuka/Foa, Ha‘ano and ‘Uiha) and is probably present in other locations as well. This species appears to be well on its way to becoming a major pest and should be evaluated for eradication. A special effort should be made to eradicate this serious invader from all park or reserve lands. It should be noted that it was seen in the National Park on ‘Eua. (4)Comments: All three of the above species invade hardwood hammocks, especially margins and canopy gaps. {Florida] (5)Piper auritum HBK. MAKULAN. Mexico to Colombia. Spreads extensively. A tall, aggressive weed in various locations in South Florida.

(1)Llamas, K. A. 2003. Tropical flowering plants: a guide to identification and cultivation. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (2)Muniappan, R., J. Cruz and J. Bamba. 2002. Invasive Plants and Their Control in Micronesia. Micronesica Suppl. 6: 85–92. (3)Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, HI. (4)Langeland, K. A. and R. K. Stocker. 2001. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida, Revised edition. SP 242, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. (5)Morton, J. F. 1976. PESTIFERO

3.05

(1)Piper aduncum…can suppress natural forest regeneration as native tree and shrub species are unable to establish seedlings in these dense thickets.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

4.01

(1)A small, soft-wooded, commonly more or less aromatic tree, 3-6 m. tall, often occurring in clumps; [no evidence]

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

4.02

(1)Almost all species studied inhibited the growth of test seedlings. The species with higher allelopathic potential were: Piper auritum, P. hispidum, Croton pyramidalis and Siparuna nicarguensis. The essential oils of the Piperaceae were highly inhibitory to seed germination and growth of seedlings, while that of Croton pyramidalis was less inhibitory and also produced stimulations [alleopathic potential in field conditions unknown]

(1)Rizvi, S. J. H. and V. Rizvi. 1992. Allelopathy: basic and applied aspects. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.

4.03

(1)A small, soft-wooded, commonly more or less aromatic tree, 3-6 m. tall, often occurring in clumps; [no evidence]

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

4.04

Unknown

4.05

(1)Piper auritum has several advantages as a fish food. First, it is not a poison that kills fish as occurs with the use of barbasco (Serjania and Paullinia of the Sapindaceae) in tropical America (Standley, 1928, p. 245). Secondly, Piper au- ritum has a potential use as a food for fish in aquaculture such as Tilapia (Pretto, 1978, pp. 7, 11-12) which, like adult Brycon, is also herbivorous (Goodyear et al., 1977, p. 276; Menezes, 1969, pp. 220-221). [no evidence of animal toxicity]

(1)Joly, L. G. 1981. Feeding and Trapping Fish with Piper auritum. Economic Botany 35(4): 383-390.

4.06

Unknown

4.07

(1)Mexicans and Central Americans use the plant in several culinary ways, including wrapping the leaves around meat and other vegetables, the whole to be cooked much as the Greeks do in making dolma. [no evidence]

(1)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

4.08

(1)a large herbaceous shrub, growing to 15 feet or sometimes more with mostly unbranched thick stems [herbaceous, no evidence of flammability or fire risk]

(1)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

4.09

(1)Sun Exposure: Partial to Full Shade [contradicts Gerwin 1995 and Begon 1994] (2)Growing Environment: Grows best in part-shade or full shade. Needs consistent and regular watering. Little other care is necessary.

(1)Dave's Garden. 2010. PlantFiles: Root Beer Plant, Hoja Santa, Mexican Pepperleaf Piper auritum. http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/530/ [Accessed 12 Mar 2010] (2)Tradewindsfruit. 2010. Root Beer Plant. Piper auritum. http://www.tradewindsfruit.com/root_beer_plant.htm [Accessed 12 Mar 2010]

4.10

(1)Requires consistently moist soil; do not let dry out between waterings Soil pH requirements: 5.6 to 6.0 (acidic) 6.1 to 6.5 (mildly acidic)

(1)Dave's Garden. 2010. PlantFiles: Root Beer Plant, Hoja Santa, Mexican Pepperleaf Piper auritum. http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/530/ [Accessed 12 Mar 2010]

4.11

(1)A small, soft-wooded, commonly more or less aromatic tree, 3-6 m. tall, often occurring in clumps; [no evidence]

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

4.12

(1)P. auritum occurs in disturbed areas and forest edges where it sprouts prolifically from subsurface rhizomes and can form large thickets in short periods of time...n its natural range Piper auritum occurs in disturbed areas and forest edges where it grows in monotypic thickets. It sprouts prolifically from subsurface rhizomes and can form large thickets in short periods of time. It also roots easily from nodes (layering).

(1)Denslow, Julie S. and Duane Nelson. 2000. Impact assessment of Pier auritum Kunth on Pohnpei, FSM. Pacific Islands Forests and Trees 2(00):6-8.

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

5.02

(1)Piperaceae

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

5.03

(1)Piperaceae

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

5.04

(1)Piper auritum reproduces freely from roots or by natural dispersion of the seeds in the dry season when it tends to have more fruiting spikes. It is widespread in Panama in several different environments, and occurs from Mexico to Colombia, and in the West Indies, from sea level to 1,200 m (Croat, 1978, p. 331). (2)A semi-woody species that produces large stands through suckering. (3)propagates by wandering underground rhizomes, which earn in the distinction of being invasive. [not a geophyte]

(1)Joly, L. G. 1981. Feeding and Trapping Fish with Piper auritum. Economic Botany 35(4): 383-390. (2)Llamas, K. A. 2003. Tropical flowering plants: a guide to identification and cultivation. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (3)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Yuncker, T. G. 1950. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Fascicle I. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37(1): 1-120.

6.02

(1)Piper auritum reproduces freely from roots or by natural dispersion of the seeds in the dry season when it tends to have more fruiting spikes. It is widespread in Panama in several different environments, and occurs from Mexico to Colombia, and in the West Indies, from sea level to 1,200 m (Croat, 1978, p. 331).

(1)Joly, L. G. 1981. Feeding and Trapping Fish with Piper auritum. Economic Botany 35(4): 383-390.

6.03

(1)The abundant flower production of P. auritum suggests that the opportunity exists for its hybridization with P. methysticum, potentially diluting its gene pool and masking its desirable qualities.

(1)Denslow, Julie S. and Duane Nelson. 2000. Impact assessment of Pier auritum Kunth on Pohnpei, FSM. Pacific Islands Forests and Trees 2(00):6-8.

6.04

(1)It is not known if self-pollination or outcrossing predominates in the family.

(1)Semple, K. S. 1974. Pollination in Piperaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 6(3): 868-871.

6.05

(1)A study of four Piper species and one Pothomorphe species in Costa Rica showed that insects do visit some Piperaceae flowers & are probably involved in pollination. Due to the globlar nature of the pollen it is not likely that wind or rain are significant pollination agents. The degree of self-pollination for the species studied has not been determined, although presumably some may occur because Piper nigrum has been found to be partially self-fertile.

(1)Semple, K. S. 1974. Pollination in Piperaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 6(3): 868-871.

6.06

(1)Piper auritum reproduces freely from roots or by natural dispersion of the seeds in the dry season when it tends to have more fruiting spikes. It is widespread in Panama in several different environments, and occurs from Mexico to Colombia, and in the West Indies, from sea level to 1,200 m (Croat, 1978, p. 331). (2)A semi-woody species that produces large stands through suckering. (3)propagates by wandering underground rhizomes, which earn in the distinction of being invasive.

(1)Joly, L. G. 1981. Feeding and Trapping Fish with Piper auritum. Economic Botany 35(4): 383-390. (2)Llamas, K. A. 2003. Tropical flowering plants: a guide to identification and cultivation. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (3)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

6.07

(1)it is one of the fastest growing foliage plants, reaching 15 feet within a 9-month growing season with plentiful moisture and a fairly decent soil.

(1)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

7.01

(1)This species suckers profusely and produces many small seeds that can be spread by birds, rodents and bats and can also be introduced into new areas on machinery. Locally, it spreads by suckers, forming large clumps.

(1)Space, J. C. and Tim Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on Invasive Plant Species of Environmental Concern. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Honolulu, HI.

7.02

(1)ornamental, food & medicinal uses

(1)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

7.03

(1)Seven plant species accounted for 79% of the seed rain: Piper auritum (23%), Ficus (hemiepiphytic-strangler tree) spp. (17%), Cecropia obtusifolia (10%), P. amalago (10%), Ficus (free-standing tree) spp. (8%), P. yzabalanum (6%), and Solanum rudepanum (5%). Bats and birds are important seed dispers- ers in pastures because they disperse seeds of pioneer and primary species (trees, shrubs, herbs, and epi- phytes), connect forest fragments, and maintain plant diversity. (2)This species suckers profusely and produces many small seeds that are spread by birds, rodents and bats. An attempt is being made to eradicate it on Pohnpei and it should not be introduced to other islands.

(1)Jorge Galindo-Gonzalez, Sergio Guevara, Vinicio J. Sosa. 2000. Bat- and Bird-Generated Seed Rains at Isolated Trees in Pastures in a Tropical Rainforest. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1693-1703. (2)Space, J. C., B. Waterhouse, J. S. Denslow and D. Nelson. 2000. Invasive Plant Species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Honolulu, HI.

7.04

(1)Seven plant species accounted for 79% of the seed rain: Piper auritum (23%), Ficus (hemiepiphytic-strangler tree) spp. (17%), Cecropia obtusifolia (10%), P. amalago (10%), Ficus (free-standing tree) spp. (8%), P. yzabalanum (6%), and Solanum rudepanum (5%). Bats and birds are important seed dispers- ers in pastures because they disperse seeds of pioneer and primary species (trees, shrubs, herbs, and epi- phytes), connect forest fragments, and maintain plant diversity. (2)This species suckers profusely and produces many small seeds that are spread by birds, rodents and bats. An attempt is being made to eradicate it on Pohnpei and it should not be introduced to other islands.

(1)Jorge Galindo-Gonzalez, Sergio Guevara, Vinicio J. Sosa. 2000. Bat- and Bird-Generated Seed Rains at Isolated Trees in Pastures in a Tropical Rainforest. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1693-1703. (2)Space, J. C., B. Waterhouse, J. S. Denslow and D. Nelson. 2000. Invasive Plant Species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Honolulu, HI.

7.05

(1)Seven plant species accounted for 79% of the seed rain: Piper auritum (23%), Ficus (hemiepiphytic-strangler tree) spp. (17%), Cecropia obtusifolia (10%), P. amalago (10%), Ficus (free-standing tree) spp. (8%), P. yzabalanum (6%), and Solanum rudepanum (5%). Bats and birds are important seed dispers- ers in pastures because they disperse seeds of pioneer and primary species (trees, shrubs, herbs, and epi- phytes), connect forest fragments, and maintain plant diversity. (2)This species suckers profusely and produces many small seeds that are spread by birds, rodents and bats. An attempt is being made to eradicate it on Pohnpei and it should not be introduced to other islands. [no evidence of water dispersal]

(1)Jorge Galindo-Gonzalez, Sergio Guevara, Vinicio J. Sosa. 2000. Bat- and Bird-Generated Seed Rains at Isolated Trees in Pastures in a Tropical Rainforest. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1693-1703. (2)Space, J. C., B. Waterhouse, J. S. Denslow and D. Nelson. 2000. Invasive Plant Species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Honolulu, HI.

7.06

(1)Seven plant species accounted for 79% of the seed rain: Piper auritum (23%), Ficus (hemiepiphytic-strangler tree) spp. (17%), Cecropia obtusifolia (10%), P. amalago (10%), Ficus (free-standing tree) spp. (8%), P. yzabalanum (6%), and Solanum rudepanum (5%). Bats and birds are important seed dispers- ers in pastures because they disperse seeds of pioneer and primary species (trees, shrubs, herbs, and epi- phytes), connect forest fragments, and maintain plant diversity. (2)This species suckers profusely and produces many small seeds that are spread by birds, rodents and bats. An attempt is being made to eradicate it on Pohnpei and it should not be introduced to other islands.

(1)Jorge Galindo-Gonzalez, Sergio Guevara, Vinicio J. Sosa. 2000. Bat- and Bird-Generated Seed Rains at Isolated Trees in Pastures in a Tropical Rainforest. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1693-1703. (2)Space, J. C., B. Waterhouse, J. S. Denslow and D. Nelson. 2000. Invasive Plant Species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Honolulu, HI.

7.07

(1)Seven plant species accounted for 79% of the seed rain: Piper auritum (23%), Ficus (hemiepiphytic-strangler tree) spp. (17%), Cecropia obtusifolia (10%), P. amalago (10%), Ficus (free-standing tree) spp. (8%), P. yzabalanum (6%), and Solanum rudepanum (5%). Bats and birds are important seed dispers- ers in pastures because they disperse seeds of pioneer and primary species (trees, shrubs, herbs, and epi- phytes), connect forest fragments, and maintain plant diversity. (2)This species suckers profusely and produces many small seeds that are spread by birds, rodents and bats. An attempt is being made to eradicate it on Pohnpei and it should not be introduced to other islands. [seeds with no means of external attachment]

(1)Jorge Galindo-Gonzalez, Sergio Guevara, Vinicio J. Sosa. 2000. Bat- and Bird-Generated Seed Rains at Isolated Trees in Pastures in a Tropical Rainforest. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1693-1703. (2)Space, J. C., B. Waterhouse, J. S. Denslow and D. Nelson. 2000. Invasive Plant Species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Honolulu, HI.

7.08

(1)Seeds voided from bats were successfully germinated within 2 months (mean for all species, 44.6 seeds, SE + 0.96; 89.2% of all seeds, SE + 1.92). Seeds began to germinate within 8 days. Piper auritum and Cecropia obtusifolia were the species with the highest germination success (96% and 92%, respectively),

(1)Jorge Galindo-Gonzalez, Sergio Guevara, Vinicio J. Sosa. 2000. Bat- and Bird-Generated Seed Rains at Isolated Trees in Pastures in a Tropical Rainforest. Conservation Biology 14(6): 1693-1703.

8.01

(1)Piper auritum reproduces freely from roots or by natural dispersion of the seeds in the dry season when it tends to have more fruiting spikes. It is widespread in Panama in several different environments, and occurs from Mexico to Colombia, and in the West Indies, from sea level to 1,200 m (Croat, 1978, p. 331). [most references refer to vegetative spread, and unlikely to produce such high seed densities] (2)As far as I know it never sets seed in the United States

(1)Joly, L. G. 1981. Feeding and Trapping Fish with Piper auritum. Economic Botany 35(4): 383-390. (2)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

8.02

(1)only 1-20% of those of Myriocarpa longipes, Piper auritum, and P. hispidum were alive after 2 years

(1)Perez-Nasser, N. and C. Vazquez-Yanes. 1986. Longevity of buried seeds from some tropical rain forest trees and shrubs of Veracruz, Mexico. Malaysian For. 49: 352-356.

8.03

(1)Hand pull when possible (broken roots may resprout); remove entire plant from site; if hand pulling is not possible or feasible, use basal bark application of 20% Garlon 4, or cut stems off at ground level and treat stumps with 50% Garlon 3A; remove cut stems from the site to avoid resprouting from nodes. [effectiveness of herbicide control unknown] (2)Systemic herbicides such as triclopyr, 2,4-D, or imazapyr likely would be translocated to growing points in the stems and roots and thereby kill the entire plant and greatly reduce re-sprouting. Since most P. auritum is planted in areas of high rainfall and abundant surface water, application methods should minimize the chance of herbicide wash-off and drift to non-target plants or surface water. Direct stem injection would maximize delivery of herbicide to the target stems and minimize non-target effects. Cut stem applications should also be effective, as long as care is taken to remove and dispose of cut stems to prevent sprouting. Foliar application would be effective on small plants, provided there is adequate time for herbicide absorption prior to rainfall. Foliar applications on larger plants (above shoulder height) may be effective, but risk of non-target contamination and exposure to the applicator increase when herbicides are sprayed high into the air.

(1)Langeland, K. A. and R. K. Stocker. 2001. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida, Revised edition. SP 242, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. (2)Denslow, Julie S. and Duane Nelson. 2000. Impact assessment of Pier auritum Kunth on Pohnpei, FSM. Pacific Islands Forests and Trees 2(00):6-8.

8.04

(1)It is often cut back even in frost-free regions to encourage more compact and even lusher growth, which usually exhibits even more enormous leaves than those on the old stems. (2)Hand pull when possible (broken roots may resprout); remove entire plant from site; if hand pulling is not possible or feasible, use basal bark application of 20% Garlon 4, or cut stems off at ground level and treat stumps with 50% Garlon 3A; remove cut stems from the site to avoid resprouting from nodes.

(1)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (2)Langeland, K. A. and R. K. Stocker. 2001. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida, Revised edition. SP 242, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

8.05

Unknown


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