Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Evaluate, score: 5
|
Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i. Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service Information on
Risk Assessments |
Pinus radiata; Monterey pine |
Answer |
||
1.01 |
Is the species highly domesticated? |
y=-3, n=0 |
n |
1.02 |
Has the species become naturalized where grown? |
y=-1, n=-1 |
y |
1.03 |
Does the species have weedy races? |
y=-1, n=-1 |
n |
2.01 |
Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical” |
See Append 2 |
1 |
2.02 |
Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2 |
2 |
|
2.03 |
Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility) |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
2.04 |
Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates |
y=1, n=0 |
y |
2.05 |
Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2 |
?=-1, n=0 |
y |
3.01 |
Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05 |
y |
|
3.02 |
Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) |
n=0 |
n |
3.03 |
Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) |
n=0 |
n |
3.04 |
Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) |
n=0 |
y |
3.05 |
Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) |
n=0 |
y |
4.01 |
Produces spines, thorns or burrs |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
4.02 |
Allelopathic |
y=1, n=0 |
|
4.03 |
Parasitic |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
4.04 |
Unpalatable to grazing animals |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
4.05 |
Toxic to animals |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
4.06 |
Host for recognized pests and pathogens |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
4.07 |
Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
4.08 |
Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems |
y=1, n=0 |
y |
4.09 |
Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle |
y=1, n=0 |
y |
4.1 |
Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island) |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
4.11 |
Climbing or smothering growth habit |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
4.12 |
Forms dense thickets |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
5.01 |
Aquatic |
y=5, n=0 |
n |
5.02 |
Grass |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
5.03 |
Nitrogen fixing woody plant |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
5.04 |
Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers) |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
6.01 |
Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat |
y=1, n=0 |
n |
6.02 |
Produces viable seed. |
y=1, n=-1 |
y |
6.03 |
Hybridizes naturally |
y=1, n=-1 |
y |
6.04 |
Self-compatible or apomictic |
y=1, n=-1 |
y |
6.05 |
Requires specialist pollinators |
y=-1, n=0 |
n |
6.06 |
Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
6.07 |
Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1 |
See left |
5 |
7.01 |
Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas) |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
7.02 |
Propagules dispersed intentionally by people |
y=1, n=-1 |
y |
7.03 |
Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
7.04 |
Propagules adapted to wind dispersal |
y=1, n=-1 |
y |
7.05 |
Propagules water dispersed |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
7.06 |
Propagules bird dispersed |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
7.07 |
Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally) |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
7.08 |
Propagules survive passage through the gut |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
8.01 |
Prolific seed production (>1000/m2) |
y=1, n=-1 |
n |
8.02 |
Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr) |
y=1, n=-1 |
y |
8.03 |
Well controlled by herbicides |
y=-1, n=1 |
n |
8.04 |
Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire |
y=1, n=-1 |
y |
8.05 |
Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents) |
y=-1, n=1 |
|
Total score: |
5 |
Supporting data:
Source |
Notes |
|
1.01 |
(1) Mouradov, A.; Teasdale, R. D. (1999) Genetic engineering
of reproductive incompetence in radiata pine. Protoplasma, 1999, Vol.208,
No.1/4, pp.13-17, 36 ref. |
no evidence, although reproductive icompetent lines are under development |
1.02 |
(1)Cozzo, D. (1994) Conversion of forest plantations of
exotic species into sustainable system in Argentina. [Conversión de
plantaciones forestales de especies exóticas en sistemas sostenibles en
Argentina.] Investigación Agraria, Sistemas y Recursos Forestales, 1994,
Vol.3, No.1, pp.31-42, 14 ref. |
(1)AB: The features of the naturalization of exotic conifer
plantations in Argentina are reviewed, i.e. cases in which the
first-rotation plantations have 'gone wild' and regenerated themselves
abundantly by seed, and have formed second- and even third-generation stands
with indigenous broadleaved scrub species. The main species involved are
Pinus elliottii and P. taeda in the provinces of Misiones, Entre Ríos and N.
Buenos Aires, and also in the Calamuchita valley (Córdoba province). In the
moist regions of the Patagonian Andes between Bariloche and Trevelín, the
same naturalization process is observed in plantations of Pseudotsuga
menziesii , Pinus contorta , Pinus ponderosa , Pinus radiata etc. |
1.03 |
no evidence |
|
2.01 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
"Pinus radiata has an extremely narrow natural range: three
coastal areas in California (one in San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties, one
in Monterey County, and one in San Luis Obispo County) and off the coast of
Baja California, Mexico (Guadalupe Island and debatably also on Cedros
Island). Some natural populations of the species are under protection. Along
the California coast it has escaped from cultivation, and from there into
southern coastal Oregon it shows signs of naturalizing. |
2.02 |
||
2.03 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
"Pinus radiata has an extremely narrow natural range: three
coastal areas in California (one in San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties, one
in Monterey County, and one in San Luis Obispo County) and off the coast of
Baja California, Mexico (Guadalupe Island and debatably also on Cedros
Island). Some natural populations of the species are under protection. Along
the California coast it has escaped from cultivation, and from there into
southern coastal Oregon it shows signs of naturalizing. |
2.04 |
(1)Cozzo, D. (1994) Conversion of forest plantations of
exotic species into sustainable system in Argentina. [Conversión de
plantaciones forestales de especies exóticas en sistemas sostenibles en
Argentina.] Investigación Agraria, Sistemas y Recursos Forestales, 1994,
Vol.3, No.1, pp.31-42, 14 ref. |
(1)AB: The features of the naturalization of exotic conifer
plantations in Argentina are reviewed, i.e. cases in which the
first-rotation plantations have 'gone wild' and regenerated themselves
abundantly by seed, and have formed second- and even third-generation stands
with indigenous broadleaved scrub species. The main species involved are
Pinus elliottii and P. taeda in the provinces of Misiones, Entre Ríos and N.
Buenos Aires, and also in the Calamuchita valley (Córdoba province). In the
moist regions of the Patagonian Andes between Bariloche and Trevelín, the
same naturalization process is observed in plantations of Pseudotsuga
menziesii , Pinus contorta , Pinus ponderosa , Pinus radiata etc. |
2.05 |
(1)Leslie, A. D. (1992) Conifer trials in Lesotho: a review
of results. Conifer trials in Lesotho: a review of results., 1992, iii + 89
pp., 21 ref. |
(1)South Africa (2) Ecuador (3) Australia, New Zealand, Southern Africa and Chile |
3.01 |
(1)Cozzo, D. (1994) Conversion of forest plantations of
exotic species into sustainable system in Argentina. [Conversión de
plantaciones forestales de especies exóticas en sistemas sostenibles en
Argentina.] Investigación Agraria, Sistemas y Recursos Forestales, 1994,
Vol.3, No.1, pp.31-42, 14 ref. |
(1)AB: The features of the naturalization of exotic conifer
plantations in Argentina are reviewed, i.e. cases in which the
first-rotation plantations have 'gone wild' and regenerated themselves
abundantly by seed, and have formed second- and even third-generation stands
with indigenous broadleaved scrub species. The main species involved are
Pinus elliottii and P. taeda in the provinces of Misiones, Entre Ríos and N.
Buenos Aires, and also in the Calamuchita valley (Córdoba province). In the
moist regions of the Patagonian Andes between Bariloche and Trevelín, the
same naturalization process is observed in plantations of Pseudotsuga
menziesii , Pinus contorta , Pinus ponderosa , Pinus radiata etc. |
3.02 |
no evidence |
|
3.03 |
no evidence |
|
3.04 |
Richardson, D. M.; Macdonald, I. A. W.; Forsyth, G. G. (1989) Reductions in plant species richness under stands of alien trees and shrubs in the fynbos biome. South African Forestry Journal, 1989, No.149, pp.1-8, 32 ref. |
"One of the problems associated with the presence of dense stands of exotic trees and shrubs in the fynbos biome of the Cape Province, South Africa, is the reduction of indigenous plant species diversity. Shrubs, often forming a major part of fynbos vegetation, have been shown to be particularly vulnerable to invasive exotic species. A review was made of published data on plant species richness in fynbos (in 4 to 256 m2 quadrats); in addition, a survey was made of 4 m2 quadrats randomly distributed at 13 sites representative of various alien plant densities or control histories. The invasive species included Pinus pinaster, P. radiata, Hakea sericea, Acacia saligna, A. melanoxylon and A. cyclops. Linear regressions of species richness on the log of quadrat size were significant for both uninvaded fynbos and fynbos under dense stands of alien trees and shrubs. The slopes of the regression equations did not differ significantly between invaded and uninvaded sites, but elevations [y-intercepts] were significantl |
3.05 |
Richardson, D. M.; Macdonald, I. A. W.; Forsyth, G. G. (1989) Reductions in plant species richness under stands of alien trees and shrubs in the fynbos biome. South African Forestry Journal, 1989, No.149, pp.1-8, 33 ref. |
Pinus pinaster was considered as an invasive speies and suggested to be cleared. |
4.01 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
Trees to 30m; trunk to 0.9m diam., contorted to straight; crown broadly conic, becoming rounded to flattened. Bark gray, deeply V-furrowed, furrow bases red, ridges irregularly elongate-rectangular, their flattened surfaces scaly. Branches level to downcurved or ascending, poorly self-pruning; twigs slender, red-brown, sometimes glaucous, aging gray, rough. Buds ovoid to ovoid-cylindric, red-brown, ca. 1.5cm, resinous. Leaves (2--)3 in a fascicle, spreading-ascending, persisting 3--4 years, (8--)9--15(--20)cm ´ 1.3--1.8(--2)mm, straight, slightly twisted, deep yellow-green, all surfaces with fine stomatal lines, margins serrulate, apex conic-subulate; sheath (1--)1.5--2cm, base persistent. Pollen cones ellipsoid-cylindric, 10--15mm, orange-brown. Seed cones maturing in 2 years, shedding seeds soon thereafter, but often serotinous and persistent 6--20 years, solitary to whorled, spreading to recurved, curved, very asymmetric, ovoid before opening, broadly ovoid when open, 7--14cm, pale red-brown and lustrous, |
4.02 |
(1) Ballester, A.; Arias, A. M.; Cobián, B.; López C., E.;
Vieitez, E. (1982) Study of the allelopathic potentials caused by Eucalyptus
globulus Labill., Pinus pinaster Ait. and Pinus radiata D. [FT: Estudio de
potenciales alelopáticos originados por Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Pinus
pinaster Ait. y Pinus radiata D.] Pastos, 1982, Vol.12, No.2, pp.239-254, 9
ref. |
(1)For laboratory trials, eucalyptus leaves and pine needles
were gathered and tested immediately or frozen for extract trials. Dry
leaves and needles were collected in April. The allelopathic effects of
aqueous solutions, direct contact, volatile components and chromatographic
fractions of aqueous solutions were tested on seedling growth of 4 legume
and 5 grass spp. It was concluded that the activity of aqueous extracts was
in the order E. globulus > P. pinaster > P. radiata. Extracts of materials
collected in April were more inhibitory than those of material collected in
Jan. Seedlings of Festuca spp. were the most affected, other spp. being
scarcely affected. Chromatographic separation showed that the majority of
the compounds present were phenolic. Inhibition by contact was greater than
for aqueous extracts. Several volatile toxins, probably terpenes, were found
in the 3 spp (=lab allelopathy) . |
4.03 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
autotrophic tree |
4.04 |
(1)McArthur, C.; Goodwin, A.; Turner, S. (2000) Preferences,
selection and damage to seedlings under changing availability by two
marsupial herbivores. Forest Ecology and Management, 2000, Vol.139, No.1/3,
pp.157-173, 52 ref. |
(1)AB: "For possums, Eucalyptus nitens was one of the most
preferred species, whereas for pademelons, Acacia melanoxylon and Pinus
radiata were preferred. At low damage levels, possums ate the apical bud of
seedlings more frequently than pademelons. " . |
4.05 |
(1)McArthur, C.; Goodwin, A.; Turner, S. (2000) Preferences,
selection and damage to seedlings under changing availability by two
marsupial herbivores. Forest Ecology and Management, 2000, Vol.139, No.1/3,
pp.157-173, 52 ref. |
(1)AB: "For possums, Eucalyptus nitens was one of the most
preferred species, whereas for pademelons, Acacia melanoxylon and Pinus
radiata were preferred. At low damage levels, possums ate the apical bud of
seedlings more frequently than pademelons. " . |
4.06 |
(1) Chile, Comite Nacional de Sanidad Forestal\Chile,
Corporacion Nacional Forestal (1993) National strategy for integrated
control of the pine shoot moth in the 1993-94 season. [FT: Estrategia
nacional para el control integrado de la polilla del brote temporada 93-94.]
Documento Tecnico - Chile Forestal, 1993, No.74, 8 pp. |
THESE PESTS ONLY AFFECT OTHER PINES -- NOT A CONCERN IN
PACIFIC ISLANDS. (1) AB: A detailed description is given of the programme
for integrated control of the pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana) in
Chile, where it presents a serious threat to the extensive plantations of
Pinus radiata. . |
4.07 |
no evidence |
|
4.08 |
Fonda, R. W.; Belanger, L. A.; Burley, L. L. (1998) Burning characteristics of western conifer needles. Northwest Science, 1998, Vol.72, No.1, pp.1-9, 45 ref. |
AB: The needles from thirteen species of western conifers were burned to compare flammability of nonwoody fuels. The following burning characteristics were measured: maximum flame height, flame time, ember time, burn time, percent combusted, and mean rate of weight loss. The burning characteristics tested in this study address important aspects of nonwoody fuel flammability in coniferous forests. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa ), Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi ), Monterey pine (P. radiata ), coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens ), knobcone pine (P. attenuata ), giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum ), and sugar pine (P. lambertiana ) ranked in the upper half of most of the burn categories. These highly flammable species are prominent in communities for which fire return intervals are two to four decades. Lodgepole pine (P. contorta ), western redcedar (Thuja plicata ), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii ), Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis ), subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa ), and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophyl |
4.09 |
1)USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA. 2)http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/pinus/radiata.htm |
1)Shade Tolerance Intermediate |
4.1 |
1)USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA. 2)http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/pinus/radiata.htm |
not 1)adapted to Fine Textured Soils 2)Most soils are deep
sandy |
4.11 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
trees |
4.12 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
Trees to 30m; trunk to 0.9m diam., contorted to straight; crown broadly conic, becoming rounded to flattened. |
5.01 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
terrestrial rees |
5.02 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
Trees |
5.03 |
USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA. |
|
5.04 |
Flora of North America Association (2000). Flora of North America <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?ACT=desc&FLORA_ID=12395&TAXON_ID=233500951> |
Trees to 30m |
6.01 |
no evidence |
|
6.02 |
USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA. |
Propagated by Seed |
6.03 |
1) http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/pinus/radiata.htm 2)Axelrod, D. I.; Hill, T. G. (1988) Pinus x critchfieldii, a late Pleistocene hybrid pine from coastal southern California. American Journal of Botany, 1988, Vol.75, No.4, pp.558-569, 28 ref. |
1)hybridization is occurring locally between Monterey and
knobcone pines at Año Nuevo (11). The hybrid is designated Pinus attenuata x
radiata Stockwell & Righter. |
6.04 |
(1)Wilcox, M. D. (1983) Inbreeding depression and genetic variances estimated from self- and cross-pollinated families of Pinus radiata. Silvae Genetica, 1983, Vol.32, No.3/4, pp.89-96, 18 ref. (2)Matheson, A. C. (1980) Unexpectedly high frequencies of outcrossed seedlings among offspring from mixtures of self and cross pollen in Pinus radiata D. Don. Australian Forest Research, 1980, Vol.10, No.1, pp.21-27, 25 ref |
(1)AB: Compared with artificially cross-pollinated progenies, self-pollinated progenies of 25 P. radiata plus-trees grew more slowly in the nursery, and up to the age of 7 yr on a fertile site in Kaingaroa Forest, New Zealand, grew more slowly in diameter, had more crooked stems, had a less desirable branching habit, were less resistant to Naemacyclus minor and/or Dothistroma needle diseases, and had slightly denser wood. There was a strong interaction between parent and inbreeding depression for diam. growth, giving a very weak correlation between the relative performance of selfs and their corresponding crosses. For other traits, correlations between selfs and crosses were high, and self-pollinated families could be used to measure the general combining ability of the parents. Estimates of family variance were higher in all traits for self- than for cross-pollinated families. Additive, dominance, and additive x additive genetic variances indicated that wood density, branching quality and stem straightness w |
6.05 |
Liu, B. S.; Sweet, G. B. (1977) Pollination in Pinus radiata. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 1977, Vol.7, No.1, pp.21-34, 11 ref. |
wind pollinated |
6.06 |
no evidence |
|
6.07 |
Pederick, L. A.; Brown, A. G. (1976) Seed production in Radiata Pine seed orchards in Australia. Australian Forestry, 1976, Vol.39, No.3, pp.164-179, 28 ref. |
AB: "Production records are reviewed for six orchards in SE Australia. Yields commenced at about age 5 years and increased to about 20 kg/ha at 10-12 years old, though crops varied considerably" |
7.01 |
no evidence |
|
7.02 |
timber tree |
|
7.03 |
no evidence |
|
7.04 |
Wilgen, B. W. van; Siegfried, W. R. (1986) Seed dispersal properties of three pine species as a determinant of invasive potential. South African Journal of Botany, 1986, Vol.52, No.6, pp.546-548, 11 ref. |
AB: Data are presented on the seed morphology of 3 pine species found in SW Cape Province, South Africa, Pinus pinea, P. pinaster and P. radiata. The seeds of both P. pinaster and P. radiata are relatively small (50 and 20 mg respectively) and have relatively large wings (190 and 110 mm2 respectively), while P. pinea seeds are larger (700 mg) with smaller wings (24 mm2). Data on the rate of fall of samaras of all 3 species determined in the laboratory and field data on the dispersal of P. pinaster and P. pinea showed that P. pinea samaras drop straight to the ground and seedlings of this species occur only under parent trees, whereas the samaras of P. pinaster and P. radiata are adapted for long-range dispersal. |
7.05 |
no evidce |
|
7.06 |
no evidce |
|
7.07 |
no evidce |
|
7.08 |
no evidce |
|
8.01 |
(1) Griffin, A. R. (1983) Clonal variation in radiata pine
seed orchards. I. Some flowering, cone and seed production traits.
Australian Forest Research, 1983, Vol.12, No.4, pp.295-302, 14 ref. p.297
table.1 |
(1)60.2 seeds/square meter[100 seeds weight 3.34g; 70.5 seeds/cone; 20.1kg seeds/ha] (2) 21.9-46 kg/ha; 37-90.8 cones/tree(6x5 meter); 112-299g/tree(30 square meter) |
8.02 |
Farooqui, U. M.; Dixit, R. K.; Patra, A. K.; Rayal, S. P.; Khan, A.; Tiwari, S. K. (2000) Effectiveness of different seed extraction methods on seed value from the cones of Pinus radiata. Indian Forester, 2000, Vol.126, No.9, pp.936-942, 16 ref. |
AB: "The cones of radiata pine or Pinus radiata are serotinous. The cone scales are stuck together by resin, making natural seed release impossible for many years. " |
8.03 |
1)Maclaren et al.1999. Chemical thinning of radiata pine.New-Zealand-Journal-of-Forestry.44 (1):19-22. 2)Gous-S-F 1997. Season of application affects herbicide efficacy in Pinus radiata plantations in the southern Cape region of South Africa. Southern-African-Forestry-Journal. 0 (179) 3-5. |
1)New Zealand trials using metsulfuron (Escort) and glyphosate (Roundup) for chemical thinning of radiata pine have shown little indication that chainsaws are likely to be replaced as a method of thinning-to-waste. 2)Hexazinone had no detrimental effect on P.radiata and improved their height growth, whereas glyphosate scorched the trees, but improved their diameter growth. |
8.04 |
Brown, I. (1998) The last refuge: California's radiata pines. Part I: the natural populations. New Zealand Tree Grower, 1998, Vol.19, No.5, pp.13-17, 8 ref. |
AB: The native populations of Pinus radiata in California and the Pacific West of USA are discussed with particular reference to new ideas on the evolutionary trajectory of the species (linked with a strong adaptation to fire) and some of the natural factors (including soil and water) that have imposed restrictions on its natural range. |
8.05 |
no evidence |
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