Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Pimenta racemosa (bayrumtree)

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

4

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/reports/cireport.htm (2)http://www2.bishopmuseum.org/PBS/cookislands/details.asp?cols=5&sp=%3Ci%3E
Pimenta+racemosa%3C%2Fi%3E&nav=%3Fcols%3D5%26EBG%3Dpimenta
%26country%3DxCKx%26nameset%3Dall%26disp%3Dmain%26lang%3DTraName

(1)Pimenta racemosa (bay tree, bay rum tree) is becoming well established on most of the southern group of islands except Aitutaki. It is especially prevalent on Ma‘uke. (2)COOK ISLANDS STATUS:Naturalised

1.03

no evidence

2.01

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.148

native in northern South America and throughout the Caribbean

2.02

2.03

(1)L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.150 (2)Adams, C.D. 1972. Flowering Plants of Jamaica. University of the West Indies Press, Mona (3)Little, E.L. and Wadsworth, F.H. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. USDA Ag Handbook 249. Washington DC.

(1)grows at temperature between 15-35 ℃, frost is not tolerated. Trees are found up to 750 m. (2)sea level up to 2500 ft (3)Confined chiefly to dry slopes [In Puerto Rico, low elevation]

2.04

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.148

native in northern South America and throughout the Caribbean

2.05

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.148

native in northern South America and throughout the Caribbean, cultivated in the Caribbean, south eastern United States, Cameroon*, India* and have been experimentally grown in Indonesia* and Singapore* (* introduced)

3.01

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/reports/cireport.htm (2)http://www2.bishopmuseum.org/PBS/cookislands/details.asp?cols=5&sp=%3Ci%3E
Pimenta+racemosa%3C%2Fi%3E&nav=%3Fcols%3D5%26EBG%3Dpimenta
%26country%3DxCKx%26nameset%3Dall%26disp%3Dmain%26lang%3DTraName

(1)Pimenta racemosa (bay tree, bay rum tree) is becoming well established on most of the southern group of islands except Aitutaki. It is especially prevalent on Ma‘uke. (2)COOK ISLANDS STATUS:Naturalised

3.02

no evidence suggested that it is a weed

3.03

no evidence suggested that it is a weed

3.04

http://www2.bishopmuseum.org/PBS/cookislands/details.asp?cols=5&sp=%3Ci%3E
Pimenta+racemosa%3C%2Fi%3E&nav=%3Fcols%3D5%26EBG%3Dpimenta
%26country%3DxCKx%26nameset%3Dall%26disp%3Dmain%26lang%3DTraName

NEGATIVE SIGNIFICANCE: Invasive - serious: Commonly invasive in the lower inland forest of Rarotonga

3.05

http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/list/p.htm

Pimeta dioica was suggested as a pest in Tonga (Jim Space)

4.01

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.148

4.02

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.148

4.03

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.148

4.04

no direct evidence, however the rich essential oil (1-3.5%) in leaves may deter animal

4.05

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

no direct evidence, but "bay oil is approved for food use by FDA nad is generally recognized as safe"

4.06

http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/fungushost/fungushostframe.cfm; Stevenson, J.a. 1975. Fungi of Puerto Rico and the American Virgin Islands. Contr. Reed Herb.  23:743

P. psidii infests guava and eucalyptus

4.07

no evidence

4.08

no evidence

4.09

(1)http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Myrtaceae/Pimenta_racemosa.html (2)http://www.hopkinstropicals.com/ (3)http://www.ftg.org/horticulture/membersday02.html

(1)Full sun to light shade (2)Full sun or partial shade (3)This species may be grown in full sun to light shade.

4.1

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.150

"required moist, well-drained soils" "Growth is best on deep fertile loam soils with a slightly acid to neutral, but most plantations are on marginal soils on slopes, better solis being allocated to food crops."

4.11

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

tree

4.12

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

5.01

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

5.02

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

5.03

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

5.04

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

6.01

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.150

propagation is mostly by seeds collected from natural stands or nurseries.

6.02

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.150

propagation is mostly by seeds collected from natural stands or nurseries.

6.03

no evidnce

6.04

no evidnce

6.05

no evidence

6.06

no evidence

6.07

Dr R. Criley, Dept. of Horticulture, University of Hawaii Manoa

7.01

no evidence

7.02

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.148

native in northern South America and throughout the Caribbean, cultivated in the Caribbean, south eastern United Sataes, Cameroonan, India andhave been experimentally grown inIndonesia and Singapore

7.03

Little, E.L. and Wadsworth, F.H. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. USDA Ag Handbook 249. Washington DC.

no direct evidence - seeds may collected along with leaves for oil extraction [green fruits are used for spice and these would not contain mature seeds]

7.04

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

"fruits are eaten by birds, which are the main dispersal agents for the seed"

7.05

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

"fruits are eaten by birds, which are the main dispersal agents for the seed"

7.06

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

"fruits are eaten by birds, which are the main dispersal agents for the seed"

7.07

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

"fruits are eaten by birds, which are the main dispersal agents for the seed"

7.08

L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. ISBN90-220-0986-6. P.149

"fruits are eaten by birds, which are the main dispersal agents for the seed"

8.01

Little, E.L. and Wadsworth, F.H. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. USDA Ag Handbook 249. Washington DC.

seeds > 1/8 inch long, few per fruit

8.02

Devadas, V. S.; Manomohandas, T. P. 1988. Studies on the viability of allspice seeds. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut & Spices Journal, 1988, Vol.11, No.3, p.99, 1 ref.

probably not based on Pimenta dioica - "Berries of Pimenta dioica were harvested on 2 July and seeds were extracted from the berries at the time of sowing, sowings being made immediately after harvest or between 1 and 15 weeks later. For later sowings the berries were kept in polyethylene bags at 21.5-30.5 deg C. During the first 3 weeks after collection the germination ranged between 70 and 93.3%, dropping to 53.3% after 9 weeks, and to zero after 11 weeks."

8.03

no evidence

8.04

no evidence, unlikely based on Pimenta dioica

8.05

no evidence