Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Myroxylon balsamum


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 7


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments

Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms. Family - Fabaceae. Common Names(s) - Balsam of Tolu, Peru balsam. Synonym(s) - Myrospermum pereirae Royle.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4+

-1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

7

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)A Colombian tree once cultivated by the Incas for its vanilla-like fragrance and medicine [but no evidence of domestication substantially modifying wild type]

(1)Panda, H. 2005. Cultivation and Utilization of Aromatic Plants. Asia Pacific Business Press, Inc. Delhi, India.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Latitude between 20°N and 25°S (2)Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones...Trees grow wild, scattered in forests of northern South America (3)Distribution: Has a wide range from southern Mexico southward through Central American and continuing to Argentina.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)James A. Duke, Judith L. DuCellier. 1993. CRC handbook of alternative cash crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. (3)http://www2.fpl.fs.fed.us/techsheets/Chudnoff/TropAmerican/html_files/myroxy1new.html [Accessed 01 Sep 2009]

2.02

(1)Latitude between 20°N and 25°S (2)Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones...Trees grow wild, scattered in forests of northern South America (3)Distribution: Has a wide range from southern Mexico southward through Central American and continuing to Argentina.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)James A. Duke, Judith L. DuCellier. 1993. CRC handbook of alternative cash crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. (3)http://www2.fpl.fs.fed.us/techsheets/Chudnoff/TropAmerican/html_files/myroxy1new.html [Accessed 01 Sep 2009]

2.03

(1)- Altitude range: 300 - 700 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 1350 - 4050 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; uniform
- Mean annual temperature: 23 - 27ºC

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

2.04

(1)Latitude between 20°N and 25°S (2)Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones...Trees grow wild, scattered in forests of northern South America

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)James A. Duke, Judith L. DuCellier. 1993. CRC handbook of alternative cash crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

2.05

(1)India; Africa,Congo Democratic Republic, Tanzania, Uganda; Trinidad and Tobago, Florida, [Australia], Queensland [planted]; (2)Cultivation experiments with the Peru balsam tree began since the last century in several African, Asiatic countries and in Surinam, but were mostly unsuccessful.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)Hanelt, P., R. Mansfeld, and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals), Volume 4. Springer, Berlin, Germany.

3.01

(1)One site in Cupey Alto; less than 1000 plants [2 = Slow spread and abundant reproduction, I = Infrequent or confined to limited habitat (less than 100 hectares),]

(1)Francis, J. K. and H. A. Liogier. 1991. Naturalized Exotic Tree Species in Puerto Rico. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-82. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.

3.02

(1)Examples of invasive weed species in Sri Lanka include: water fern Salvinia molesta, water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes, giant sensitive plant Mimosa pigra, congress weed Parthenium hysterophorus, lantana Lantana camara, balsam of Peru Myroxylon balsamum, gorse weed Ulex europaeus, mesquite Prosopis juliflora, alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides, Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala, madeira vine Anredera cordifolia, and wild sunflower Tithonia diversifolia. Among the faunal populations, feral buffalo Bubalus bubalis, tank cleaner Hypostomus plecostomus, clown knife fish Chitala chitala, and tilapia Sarotherodon mossambicus are among the dominant IAS in recorded in the country (see Marambe et al. in the accompanying national reports volume for further details).

(1)Marambe, B. 2002. Invasive alien species in insular South Asia. Pp. 51-54 in N. Pallewatta, J. K. Reaser, and A. T. Gutierrez (eds.). Prevention and Management of Invasive Alien Species: Proceedings of a Workshop on Forging Cooperation throughout South and Southeast Asia. 14-16 August 2002 Bangkok, Thailand.

3.03

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/myroxylon_balsamum/ [Accessed 02 Sep 2009]

3.04

(1)Myroxylon balsamum was introduced to the Central Province as a windbreak species and has now developed into monospecific stands covering a large extent of Udawattekele Nature Reserve in the Kandy district (Wedatanthri & Hitinayake, 1999; Hitinayake et al., 2000; Pushpakumara et al., 2000). (2)Results showed that Myroxylon has dominated the understory even when a few mother plants were available in the overstory. This could be attributed to prolific seed production capacity, its ability to germinate under wide range of light conditions, favourable micro-climatic conditions presenting in the understory and absence of any seed pest or pathogen. Further results clearly showed that Myroxylon invasion had resulted in the decline of species diversity of the forest. If no control measures are applied, there is a possibility that this species could invade the other parts of the forest in the long term. Therefore necessary action must be taken immediately to control Myroxylon balsamum. This could be done by uprooting seedlings, collecting and destroying seeds and thinning some mother trees. Further understanding of the efficiency of key physiological processes of Myroxylon including water use efficiency and stomatal conductance could be useful in deciding measures to control the invasion. (3)Myroxylon balsamum, Fabaceae First reported in the 1920s, Myroxylon has recently been identified as colonizing natural and semi-natural habitats in some parts of the country. It has been planted as a shade tree along roadsides, as windbreaks and in plantations. It has been reported to damage the composition, structure and functions of natural ecosystems. In certain forests, it has developed into mono-specific stands, for example, in Udawattakele Nature Reserve and in some mixed mahogany forests [Sri Lanka]

(1)Pallewatta, N., J.K. Reaser, and A.T. Gutierrez. (eds.). 2003. Invasive Alien Species in South- Southeast Asia: National Reports & Directory of Resources. Global Invasive Species Programme, Cape Town, South Africa. (2)Wedathanthri, H. P. and H.M.G.S.B. Hitinayake. 1999. INVASIVE BEHAVIOUR OF Myroxylon balsamum AT UDAWATTAKELE FOREST RESERVE. FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENT SYMPOSIUM. Available from http://ybiol.tripod.com/forest/99sympo/9914weda.htm [Accessed 01 Sep 2009] (3)http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae944e/ae944e09.htm [Accessed 02 Sep 2009]

3.05

(1)Myroxylon toluiferum listed as an environmental weed, but also considered a synonym of M. balsamum

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/myroxylon_toluiferum/ [Accessed 01 Sep 2009]

4.01

(1)No evidence

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

4.02

(1)The presence of high levels of coumarin in the cotyledons and embryonic axis seems to have no effect on the germination of this species, but it seems to act as an allelopathic factor. [no further information found on allelopathic properties] (2)Myroxylon balsamum is often used to shade coffee plantations, where it attains a height of 10 m in 10 to 12 years, and 20 m in 25 years. [suggests tree is not allelopathic to coffee]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

4.03

(1)M. balsamum is a deciduous tree, shade tolerant, which can reach 34 m in height, with bole up to 15 m and a d.b.h. of up to 100 cm.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

4.04

(1)For example, Tithonia diversifolia (wild sunflower) Panicum maximum (guinea grass), Pennisetum clandestinum (kikin grass) Prosopis juliflora, Lantana camara, Eichchornia crassipes (water hyacinth) and Myroxylon balsamum (Kattakumanchal) provide multiple uses such as cattle feed, fodder, green manure, biopesticides and phyto extractants. [palatability unknown; use as cattle feed and fodder probably referring to other species]

(1)Perera, N. F. and E. R. K. Perera. 2000. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES. Sixth Annual Symposium of the Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Sri Lanka. 15- 16 December 2000, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

4.05

Unknown if resins are toxic to animals [see 4.07]

 

4.06

(1)Pests recorded
Fungus diseases:
Meliola xylosmae
Myiocopron pereirae
Peckia pereirae
Phomopsis

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

4.07

(1)The tree is also well known for its yield of balsam, extracted from the trunk, which is used in perfumes and medicine. (2)Used externally, Balsam of Peru often causes skin reactions such as eruptions, ulcers, swelling, and red patches. Allergic reactions are also possible from internal use. Because Balsam of Peru may increase your sensitivity to sunlight, minimize your exposure to the sun while using this medication. [allergic reactions caused by intentional application or ingestion of resin from cut bark] (3)As of 2007, the FDA Poisonous Plant Database listed one title alluding to toxicity of this species [no further details] (4)Food: Extract is used for flavoring cough medicine and food products including baked goods, gum, candies, pop, ice cream and other sweet foods....Caution: Peruvian Balsam extract may cause contact dermatitis, photo-toxicity, large doses may cause kidney damage. [ingstion or contact with extract required for allergic reaction]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)Physicians Desk Reference. 2000. The PDR family guide to natural medicines and healing therapies. Random House, Inc. New York, New York. (3)Duke, J. A. 2008. Duke's Handbook of Medicinal Plants of Latin America. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. (4)http://www.herbvideos.com/globalt.htm#Tolu%20Balsam [Accessed 02 Sep 2009]

4.08

(1)M. balsamum is a deciduous tree, shade tolerant, which can reach 34 m in height, with bole up to 15 m and a d.b.h. of up to 100 cm...In Brazil M. balsamum grows throughout most of the whole country, mainly in the semideciduous forest of the river Parana's basin and tropical dense rain forest (Amazon forest and Atlantic forest). (2)The species is found in evergreen tropical humid forests in low to medium elevations from 100 to 600 m. [unlikely, given its distribution primarily in wetter forests]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

4.09

(1)M. balsamum is a deciduous tree, shade tolerant, which can reach 34 m in height, with bole up to 15 m and a d.b.h. of up to 100 cm...In Brazil M. balsamum grows throughout most of the whole country, mainly in the semideciduous forest of the river Parana's basin and tropical dense rain forest (Amazon forest and Atlantic forest)...- Tolerates shade - Ability to fix nitrogen

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

4.10

(1). It is indifferent with relationship to the physical conditions of the soil, preferring well drained soils. Soil descriptors - Soil texture: light; medium; heavy - Soil drainage: free - Soil reaction: acid; neutral; alkaline

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

4.11

(1)M. balsamum is a deciduous tree, shade tolerant, which can reach 34 m in height, with bole up to 15 m and a d.b.h. of up to 100 cm.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

4.12

(1)Table 1. Invasive alien plants reported from Sri Lanka...Myroxylon balsamum was introduced to the Central Province as a windbreak species and has now developed into monospecific stands covering a large extent of Udawattekele Nature Reserve in the Kandy district (Wedatanthri & Hitinayake, 1999; Hitinayake et al., 2000; Pushpakumara et al., 2000).

(1)Pallewatta, N., J.K. Reaser, and A.T. Gutierrez. (eds.). 2003. Invasive Alien Species in South- Southeast Asia: National Reports & Directory of Resources. Global Invasive Species Programme, Cape Town, South Africa.

5.01

(1)M. balsamum is a deciduous tree, shade tolerant, which can reach 34 m in height, with bole up to 15 m and a d.b.h. of up to 100 cm.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

5.02

(1)Fabaceae..- Tolerates shade - Ability to fix nitrogen

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

5.03

(1)Fabaceae

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

5.04

(1)M. balsamum is a deciduous tree, shade tolerant, which can reach 34 m in height, with bole up to 15 m and a d.b.h. of up to 100 cm.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

6.01

(1)In Brazil flowering occurs from July to September and the fruits ripen from October to November. The fruit is a samara and 1 kilogram contains about 1600 fruits.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

6.02

(1)- Stand establishment using natural regeneration; planting stock (2)The species is reproduced by seed. Seed behavior is orthodox. Germination is hypogeal and seedlings are cryptocotylar.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agricul

6.03

Unknown

6.04

Unknown

6.05

(1)Flower and fruit (figure 1): The androgynous flowers are on approximately 12cm long pedicels and simple richly blossomed racemes. The calyx is inferior, broadly tubular or oblong-campanulate, dark green and has short, rough hairs. The 5 petals are white and stemmed. The standard petal is almost circular. The stamens are bright red. The ovary is on a long stem and has 1 valve. The fruit is a one-seeded indehiscent, winged pod with brown-red reniform and distinctly curved seeds. (2)In both, large flower size, exserted stamens, and hypanthium are adaptations to bird-pollination [no indication that bird pollination requirement limits seed set]

(1)Mammerler, V. 2007. Contribution to the analysis and quality control of Peru Balsam. MPh. University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. (2)Tucker, S. C. 1993. Floral Ontogeny in Sophoreae (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae). I. Myroxylon (Myroxylon Group) and Castanospermum (Angylocalyx Group).

6.06

(1)- Stand establishment using natural regeneration; planting stock (2)The species is reproduced by seed. Seed behavior is orthodox. Germination is hypogeal and seedlings are cryptocotylar.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agricul

6.07

(1) M. balsamum generally has slow growth in the field. In experimental planting in southern Minas Gerais (Brazil), at spacings of 1.5 x 3 m, the species reached height of 0.44 m and 0.72 m after 27 months, at two different sites. In western Minas Gerais, in more fertile soils, at spacing of 3 x 3 m, it reaches a height of 2.27 m with a d.b.h. of 1.4 cm after 36 months. In Sao Paulo State, in spacing 2 x 2 m, it reaches 7.5 m in height with a d.b.h. of 6.2 cm at 14 years. (2)Myroxylon balsamum is a slow-growing, large tree that reaches up to 45 m in height and 1m d.b.h...Flowering begins after 5 years and occurs February through June. The flowers are whitish, pubescent, medium-sized, entomophilous, and grouped in simple axillary or terminal racemes 20 cm long.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

7.01

(1)Other species with wind dispersed seeds include Dalbergia retusa, Myroxylon balsamum… (2)The fruit is a flat, indehiscent, samaroid, winged pod that is stipitate, narrowly obovate, 7 to 11 cm long, and 2 cm wide; it narrows toward the base. The pod wings mimic seeds; they are up to 8 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide and have many veins crowded submedially; the lower wing is narrower than the upper wing. The fruit is monochrome yellowish brown when dried. Fruit dispersal is anemochorous. Dry fruits are found on the ground November to January. [no means of external attachment]

(1)Thomas B. Croat. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

7.02

(1)M. balsamum is used as an ornamental, for restoration of protection forests, and reclamation of degraded land. This species is also used in El Salvador in agroforestry systems as a shade tree in coffee plantations.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

7.03

(1)Other species with wind dispersed seeds include Dalbergia retusa, Myroxylon balsamum… (2)The fruit is a flat, indehiscent, samaroid, winged pod that is stipitate, narrowly obovate, 7 to 11 cm long, and 2 cm wide; it narrows toward the base. The pod wings mimic seeds; they are up to 8 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide and have many veins crowded submedially; the lower wing is narrower than the upper wing. The fruit is monochrome yellowish brown when dried. Fruit dispersal is anemochorous. Dry fruits are found on the ground November to January...The apical seminiferous area is turgid and has one subreniform seed that is 15 to 18 mm long. [no evidence, and fruits/seeds relatively large]

(1)Thomas B. Croat. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

7.04

(1)Other species with wind dispersed seeds include Dalbergia retusa, Myroxylon balsamum… (2)The fruit is a flat, indehiscent, samaroid, winged pod that is stipitate, narrowly obovate, 7 to 11 cm long, and 2 cm wide; it narrows toward the base. The pod wings mimic seeds; they are up to 8 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide and have many veins crowded submedially; the lower wing is narrower than the upper wing. The fruit is monochrome yellowish brown when dried. Fruit dispersal is anemochorous. Dry fruits are found on the ground November to January.

(1)Thomas B. Croat. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

7.05

(1)Other species with wind dispersed seeds include Dalbergia retusa, Myroxylon balsamum… (2)The fruit is a flat, indehiscent, samaroid, winged pod that is stipitate, narrowly obovate, 7 to 11 cm long, and 2 cm wide; it narrows toward the base. The pod wings mimic seeds; they are up to 8 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide and have many veins crowded submedially; the lower wing is narrower than the upper wing. The fruit is monochrome yellowish brown when dried. Fruit dispersal is anemochorous. Dry fruits are found on the ground November to January. [no evidence]

(1)Thomas B. Croat. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

7.06

(1)Other species with wind dispersed seeds include Dalbergia retusa, Myroxylon balsamum… (2)The fruit is a flat, indehiscent, samaroid, winged pod that is stipitate, narrowly obovate, 7 to 11 cm long, and 2 cm wide; it narrows toward the base. The pod wings mimic seeds; they are up to 8 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide and have many veins crowded submedially; the lower wing is narrower than the upper wing. The fruit is monochrome yellowish brown when dried. Fruit dispersal is anemochorous. Dry fruits are found on the ground November to January.

(1)Thomas B. Croat. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

7.07

(1)Other species with wind dispersed seeds include Dalbergia retusa, Myroxylon balsamum… (2)The fruit is a flat, indehiscent, samaroid, winged pod that is stipitate, narrowly obovate, 7 to 11 cm long, and 2 cm wide; it narrows toward the base. The pod wings mimic seeds; they are up to 8 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide and have many veins crowded submedially; the lower wing is narrower than the upper wing. The fruit is monochrome yellowish brown when dried. Fruit dispersal is anemochorous. Dry fruits are found on the ground November to January. [no means of external attachment]

(1)Thomas B. Croat. 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. (2)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

7.08

Unknown [no information on ingestion]

8.01

(1)M. balsamum is a deciduous tree, shade tolerant, which can reach 34 m in height, with bole up to 15 m and a d.b.h. of up to 100 cm. [can reach fairly large size, but unknown what densities of seeds can be produced]

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

8.02

(1)The fruit is a flat, indehiscent, samaroid, winged pod that is stipitate, narrowly obovate, 7 to 11 cm long, and 2 cm wide; it narrows toward the base. The pod wings mimic seeds; they are up to 8 cm long and 1 to 2 cm wide and have many veins crowded submedially; the lower wing is narrower than the upper wing. The fruit is monochrome yellowish brown when dried. Fruit dispersal is anemochorous. Dry fruits are found on the ground November to January...Fruits must be soaked in running water for 24 hours to soften the pericarp and facilitate seed extraction. The species is reproduced by seed. Seed behavior is orthodox. Germination is hypogeal and seedlings are cryptocotylar. [unknown if persistent seed bank is formed]

(1)Vosso, J. A. 2003. Tropical Tree Seed Manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

8.03

Unknown

8.04

Unknown

8.05

Unknown


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