Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Low risk, score: 1 (low risk based on second screen)
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Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i. Information on Risk Assessments Original risk assessment |
| Mangifera indica (mango) | Answer | Score | |
| 1.01 | Is the species highly domesticated? | y | -3 |
| 1.02 | Has the species become naturalized where grown? | y | 1 |
| 1.03 | Does the species have weedy races? | n | -1 |
| 2.01 | Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical” | 2 | |
| 2.02 | Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2 | ||
| 2.03 | Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility) | y | 1 |
| 2.04 | Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates | y | 1 |
| 2.05 | Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2 | y | |
| 3.01 | Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05 | y | 2 |
| 3.02 | Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | y | 2 |
| 3.03 | Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.04 | Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | ||
| 3.05 | Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 4.01 | Produces spines, thorns or burrs | n | 0 |
| 4.02 | Allelopathic | n | 0 |
| 4.03 | Parasitic | n | 0 |
| 4.04 | Unpalatable to grazing animals | n | -1 |
| 4.05 | Toxic to animals | n | 0 |
| 4.06 | Host for recognized pests and pathogens | ||
| 4.07 | Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans | y | 1 |
| 4.08 | Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems | n | 0 |
| 4.09 | Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle | n | 0 |
| 4.1 | Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island) | y | 1 |
| 4.11 | Climbing or smothering growth habit | n | 0 |
| 4.12 | Forms dense thickets | n | 0 |
| 5.01 | Aquatic | n | 0 |
| 5.02 | Grass | n | 0 |
| 5.03 | Nitrogen fixing woody plant | n | 0 |
| 5.04 | Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers) | n | 0 |
| 6.01 | Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat | n | 0 |
| 6.02 | Produces viable seed. | y | 1 |
| 6.03 | Hybridizes naturally | y | 1 |
| 6.04 | Self-compatible or apomictic | y | 1 |
| 6.05 | Requires specialist pollinators | n | 0 |
| 6.06 | Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation | n | -1 |
| 6.07 | Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1 | 3 | 0 |
| 7.01 | Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas) | n | -1 |
| 7.02 | Propagules dispersed intentionally by people | y | 1 |
| 7.03 | Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant | n | -1 |
| 7.04 | Propagules adapted to wind dispersal | n | -1 |
| 7.05 | Propagules water dispersed | n | -1 |
| 7.06 | Propagules bird dispersed | ||
| 7.07 | Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally) | n | -1 |
| 7.08 | Propagules survive passage through the gut | n | -1 |
| 8.01 | Prolific seed production (>1000/m2) | n | -1 |
| 8.02 | Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr) | n | -1 |
| 8.03 | Well controlled by herbicides | ||
| 8.04 | Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire | y | 1 |
| 8.05 | Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents) | ||
| Total score: | 1 |
Supporting data:
| Notes | Reference | |
| 1.01 | (1)The natural distribution of M. indica is in the Indo-Malesian region. It has been cultivated in India for several thousand years and reached Africa about 1000 years ago. However, botanists debate the natural distribution of this species. M. indica contains hundreds of cultivars now pan-tropical and even sub-tropical. It is cultivated in, amongst others, Pakistan, East and West Africa, North and South America, Malesia, Australia and Hawaii'. 'In the tropics it grows up to 1200 metres altitude, but commercial cultivars cannot be grown above 600 metres elevations as the climate is too cool.' 'The numerous cultivars of M. indica can be classified into two groups. Firstly, monoembryonic cultivars which form a seed with a single zygotic embryo, not true to type, to which the majority of Indian cultivars belong. Secondly, polyembryonic cultivars which form seeds with several adventitious embryos which are true to type and to which South-East Asian cultivars belong.' (2)The original wild mangos were small fruits with scant, fibrous flesh, and it is believed that natural hybridization has taken place between M. indica and M. sylvatica Roxb. in Southeast Asia. Selection for higher quality has been carried on for 4,000 to 6,000 years and vegetative propagation for 400 years.' [Answered 'yes' because the commercial cultivars cannot grow above 600 m in elevation and thus have a handicap compared to the wild varieties in terms of elevational range for growth]. | (1)Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. (2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html#Description |
| 1.02 | 'Naturalized in Hawaii, Fiji and Tonga.' | http://www.hear.org/pier/species/mangifera_indica.htm |
| 1.03 | (1)The natural distribution of M. indica is in the Indo-Malesian region. It has been cultivated in India for several thousand years and reached Africa about 1000 years ago. However, botanists debate the natural distribution of this species. M. indica contains hundreds of cultivars now pan-tropical and even sub-tropical. It is cultivated in, amongst others, Pakistan, East and West Africa, North and South America, Malesia, Australia and Hawaii'. (2)There are over 1000 known varieties of mango all over the world (over 500 named). [Although several thousand varieties are known there is no evidence of weediness associated with any particular variety]. | (1)Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. (2)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf |
| 2.01 | 'The natural distribution of M. indica is in the Indo-Malesian region. It has been cultivated in India for several thousand years and reached Africa about 1000 years ago. However, botanists debate the natural distribution of this species.'M. indica thrives in both the tropics and sub-tropics. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 2.02 | ||
| 2.03 |
(1) - Altitude range: 10 - 1200 m - Mean annual rainfall: 750 - 2500 mm - Rainfall regime: summer; winter; bimodal; uniform - Dry season duration: 3 - 8 months - Mean annual temperature: 12 - 42ºC - Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 28 - 49ºC - Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 9 - 22ºC - Absolute minimum temperature: > 5ºC (2)Hardiness: USDA zone 9B - 11. |
(1)Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. (2)http://www.tropilab.com/mangifera-ind.html |
| 2.04 | 'The natural distribution of M. indica is in the Indo-Malesian region. It has been cultivated in India for several thousand years and reached Africa about 1000 years ago. However, botanists debate the natural distribution of this species.'M. indica thrives in both the tropics and sub-tropics. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 2.05 | The natural distribution of M. indica is in the Indo-Malesian region. It has been cultivated in India for several thousand years and reached Africa about 1000 years ago. However, botanists debate the natural distribution of this species. M. indica contains hundreds of cultivars now pan-tropical and even sub-tropical. It is cultivated in, amongst others, Pakistan, East and West Africa, North and South America, Malesia, Australia and Hawaii'. 'Due to its delicious fruits, Mangifera indica has been widely disseminated throughout the tropics in the last two centuries. It is probable that the Portuguese carried the mango from India to Africa and later to South America. By the 18th century it was found growing throughout the West Indies and on the mainland of Central America. It is now found in all the tropical and subtropical regions such as the Canary islands, Madiera, along the shores of the Mediterranean, Australia, the Persian Gulf region, southern Brazil and southern U.S.A.' | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 3.01 | 'Naturalized in Hawaii, Fiji and Tonga.' | http://www.hear.org/pier/species/mangifera_indica.htm |
| 3.02 | Mango trees are considered messy trees beacuase they tend to continuously drop leaves and other material. At late flowering/early fruit set, the tree drops the aborted flowers and inflorescence branchlets, which can stail concrete or cars parked beneath. Mangos naturally thin their fruit crip, shedding aborted fruit from flowering until fruit are almost full size. These fruits have a high sap content that can stain concrete, kill grass and strip paint from cars. Mango branches are brittle and can break during heavy wind storms or with heavy crop loads. It is also common for branches to snap under the weight of a person climbing the tree to pick the fruit. Mango trees can be a nuisance in urban settings such as car parks, sports fields and public walkways. Ripe fruit falling from the trees is not only a hazard but rotting fruits on the ground present a hazard too as they are slippery if stepped on. Also the fallen fruits rot attracting vermin such as rats and pigs. The sap exudes from the stems of fruits is highly caustic and toxic, and contact with uprotected skin can cause sever blistering and rashes that can require medical attention. In gardens decaying fruit kills grass in patches and clogs up mowing equipment. | http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf |
| 3.03 | No evidence. | |
| 3.04 | (1)Reported to be invasive in Florida and Hawaii. (2)Mango is not an agressively invasive species, but some wild trees can be found in native forest areas suited to their growth. The seeds can be carried by birds, bats and other animals. [Don’t know - little conclusive evidence of it being invasive]. | (1)http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/map/main1.htm and http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/list/m.htm (2)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf |
| 3.05 | No evidence | |
| 4.01 | No evidence of such structures. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 4.02 | (1)Not allelopathic. (2) 'Effects of mango tree height, direction and distance from the tree on growth and yield of gobhi sarson were determined in an orchard at Jachh, Himachal Pradesh. Crop yield decreased with increasing tree height (1-2, 2-4 or 4-6 m), was lower 0.5-2.5 than 2.5-4.5 m from the trees, and was greater when grown south than north of the mango tree line (trees were grown in east-west rows). Gobhi sarson germination in petri dishes was increased by mango leaf leachate, whereas root length and seedling fresh weight were decreased.' [Abstract] (3) 'In 1997, pruned rose [Rosa sp.] cv. Happiness plants were planted in a field at Hessaraghatta, India. The following weed control treatments were compared: pre-emergence diuron at 1.0 kg a.i./ha + glyphosate (8 ml/litre), oxyfluorfen at 0.5 kg a.i./ha + glyphosate or sulfosate [glyphosate trimesium] (8 ml/litre), mango (Mangifera indica) or neem (Azadirachta indica) dry leaf mulching at 20 kg/plot 15 days after planting, radish [Raphanus sativus] live mulching and manual weeding. All dicotyledonous weeds were controlled by the mango leaf mulch 60 days after treatment. All except Euphorbia hirta were controlled by herbicide treatments. Lagascea spp. and Blumea mollis were present in the neem leaf mulch treatment. Most dicotyledonous weeds present in the control were present in the hand-weeding and radish mulch treatments. Cyperus rotundus and Cynodon dactylon were most effectively controlled by neem leaf and mango leaf mulches, and neem leaf and radish mulches, respectively. Rose growth was not affected by any of the treatments. Under laboratory conditions, 2% mango leaf leachate solution did not affect germination of a number of crops, although finger millet [Eleusine coracana] and french bean [Phaseolus vulgaris] radicle growth were reduced by 80 and 89%, respectively. Mango leachates reduced chlorophyll a and b levels in radish cotyledons.' [Abstract]. [Answered no based on first reference. Also because no evidence of allelopathic impacts. No evidence of 'negative allelopathy' among the experimental demonstrations of allelopathy in mango.] | (1)http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=MAIN3 (2)Effect of mango trees on germination, growth and yield of gobhi sarson (Brassica campestris) . By: Kamal Sharma; Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 70 (5), 2000, p.325-327 (Journal article) (3)Allelopathic potential of mango leaves for weed management in rose (Rosa hybrida cv. Happiness) basins . By: Challa, P.; Allelopathy Journal 6 (1), 1999, p.75-80 (Journal article) |
| 4.03 | No evidence | |
| 4.04 | (1) 'It is a multipurpose tree species providing shelterbelts, firewood, timber, fruits, cattle fodder, green manure and medicine.' 'Seed kernels can be used as cattle and poultry feed.' (2)Palatability to browse animals - Medium. Palatablility of grazing animals -low. | (1)Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. (2)http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=MAIN3 |
| 4.05 | No evidence | |
| 4.06 | Several fungi and insect speceis are know to attack mango trees. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 4.07 | 'The sap which exudes from the stalk close to the base of the fruit is somewhat milky at first, also yellowish-resinous. It becomes pale-yellow and translucent when dried. It contains mangiferen, resinous acid, mangiferic acid, and the resinol, mangiferol. It, like the sap of the trunk and branches and the skin of the unripe fruit, is a potent skin irritant, and capable of blistering the skin of the normal individual. As with poison ivy, there is typically a delayed reaction. Hypersensitive persons may react with considerable swelling of the eyelids, the face, and other parts of the body. They may not be able to handle, peel, or eat mangos or any food containing mango flesh or juice. A good precaution is to use one knife to peel the mango, and a clean knife to slice the flesh to avoid contaminating the flesh with any of the resin in the peel.' 'When mango trees are in bloom, it is not uncommon for people to suffer itching around the eyes, facial swelling and respiratory difficulty, even though there is no airborne pollen. The few pollen grains are large and they tend to adhere to each other even in dry weather. The stigma is small and not designed to catch windborne pollen. The irritant is probably the vaporized essential oil of the flowers which contains the sesquiterpene alcohol, mangiferol, and the ketone, mangiferone. Mango wood should never be used in fireplaces or for cooking fuel, as its smoke is highly irritant.' | http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html#Propagation |
| 4.08 | Probably not - an evergreen tree that inhabits relatively wet areas. | |
| 4.09 | (1) 'Light requirement: full sun.' (2)Shade intolerant. | (1)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST404 (2)http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=MAIN3 |
| 4.1 | (1) 'M. indica and its cultivars grow in a wide range of soil and moisture regimes.' ' Soil types: alluvial soils; granite soils; lateritic soils; sandy soils; subtropical soils; tropical soils.' (2)'The mango tree is not too particular as to soil type, providing it has good drainage. Rich, deep loam certainly contributes to maximum growth, but if the soil is too rich and moist and too well fertilized, the tree will respond vegetatively but will be deficient in flowering and fruiting. The mango performs very well in sand, gravel, and even oolitic limestone (as in southern Florida and the Bahamas).' (3)Soil tolerances: clay; sand; loam; alkaline; acidic; well-drained. | (1)Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. (2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html#Description (3)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST404 |
| 4.11 | No evidence that the species has a climbing habit. | |
| 4.12 | No evidence | |
| 5.01 | It is a medium to large tree, 10-45m tall and 60-120 cm diameter with one long tap root and a dense mass of surface roots. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 5.02 | ||
| 5.03 | No nitrogen fixation. | http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=MAIN3 |
| 5.04 | ||
| 6.01 | No evidence regarding reproductive failure in the native region of India. | |
| 6.02 | 'Germination can be hastened by removing the tough endocarp before sowing. It takes about 20 days for the seeds to germinate.' | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 6.03 | 'The original wild mangos were small fruits with scant, fibrous flesh, and it is believed that natural hybridization has taken place between M. indica and M. sylvatica Roxb. in Southeast Asia. Selection for higher quality has been carried on for 4,000 to 6,000 years and vegetative propagation for 400 years. ' | http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html#Description |
| 6.04 | (1) 'Hundreds and even as many as 3,000 to 4,000 small, yellowish or reddish flowers, 25% to 98% male, the rest hermaphroditic, ...' (2)Pollen is generally compatible within and between varieties. (3)Postzygotic self-incompatibility has been reported in several commercial Indian mango (Mangifera indica) cultivars. However, Floridian cultivars appear to be self-fertile. Isozyme analysis was used to determine outcrossing rates at the fruitlet and fruit stages in Floridian cv. Tommy Atkins grown in Rehovot, Israel. Two commercial mango orchards consisting of adjacent solid blocks of Tommy Atkins and Maya were investigated. A consistent and significant increase in outcrossing rate during fruit development occurred. In Tommy Atkins, the average outcrossing rate increased from 10 and 13% in fruitlets to 66 and 73% in mature fruit, in the 2 blocks investigated, respectively. This 6-fold increase was the result of selective abscission of selfed progeny. A significant inverse correlation occurred between the distance of Tommy Atkins trees from the Maya block and the outcrossing rate in mature fruits. No significant correlation occurred between distance from Maya, or outcrossing rate, and yield.[Anstract]. (4)'The fruit set of cultivars Mallika, Dashehari, Langra, Alphonso and Pairi pollinated by (i) open pollination, (ii) Bombay Green or (iii) one of the same 5 cultivars, was determined. As pollinators, Bombay Green gave the best, and Pairi the worst fruit set. Langra and Alphonso gave the best fruit set under open pollination, and Langra was the most self-fertile cultivar.[Abstract]. [Answered yes because self compatability does occur in the species but seems to vary among the varieties]. | (1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html#Description (2)http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf (3)Effect of pollenizer distance and selective fruitlet abscission on outcrossing rate and yield in 'Tommy Atkins' mango . By: Dag, A.; Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 123 (4), 1998, p.618-622 (Journal article) (4)Effect of inter-varietal crosses and open pollination on fruit set in certain cultivars of mango . By: Narayana Swamy, P.; Acta Horticulturae (231), 1989, p.142-144 (Conference paper) (Journal article) |
| 6.05 | Pollination is largely effected by flies and bees. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 6.06 | Vegetative spread rate slow. [Answered no because no evidence of spread in the wild by vegetative means]. | http://plants.nrcs.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_attribute.cgi&symbol=MAIN3 |
| 6.07 | Mango trees start producing fruit 2 to 4 years after planting in the field and can continue to produce fruits for more than 100 years. | http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf |
| 7.01 | Probably not - relatively large seeds with no means of attachment. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 7.02 | 'It is a multipurpose tree species providing shelterbelts, firewood, timber, fruits, cattle fodder, green manure and medicine.' | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 7.03 | Probably not - relatively large seeds. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 7.04 | Seeds are large with no adaptation for wind dispersal. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 7.05 | 'Mango is not an agressively invasive species, but some wild trees can be found in native forest areas suited to their growth. The seeds can be carried by birds, bats and other animals. ' | )http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf |
| 7.06 | 'Mango is not an agressively invasive species, but some wild trees can be found in native forest areas suited to their growth. The seeds can be carried by birds, bats and other animals. ' [The fruits may be eaten by birds but no evidence that any specific birds carry the seeds]. | )http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf |
| 7.07 | Probably not - no evidence that the seeds have any means of attachment. | |
| 7.08 | Probably not - no evidence of ingestion. | |
| 8.01 | Probably not - relatively large seeds. | |
| 8.02 | 'Seeds loose their viability in a matter of weeks are therefore pre-germinated immediately after collection.' Seed storage recalcitrant. | Forestry Compendium [Online database]. © CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 2005. |
| 8.03 | Don’t know. No evidence that the species is being controlled for. | |
| 8.04 | 'Young mangos are easilty burned beyond regeneration by grass or forest fires. Larger mature trees are more able to regenerate after forest fires, although their canopies are no more tolerant of fire than younger trees.' 'Mangoes are tolerant of sever pruning and will regain cropping within 1 or 2 seasons.' [Although intolerant of fire, answered yes as it is tolerant of sever pruning]. | http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Mangifera-mango.pdf |
| 8.05 | Don’t know. |
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