Macrotyloma axillare (E. Meyer) Verdc. Family - Fabaceae. Common Names(s) - Perennial horsegram . Synonym(s) - Clitoria viridiflora Hook. Clitoria viridiflora Bouton ex Hook.; Dolichos axillaris E. Mey.; Dolichos axillaris E. Mey. var. glaber E. Mey.; Dolichos axillaris E. Mey. var. macranthus Brenan.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

10

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Wiersema, J. H. and B. León. 1999. World economic plants: a standard reference. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. (2)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Distrb. Africa to Madagascar, Mauritius, Ceylon, and New Guinea to Australia.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

2.02

(1)Distrb. Africa to Madagascar, Mauritius, Ceylon, and New Guinea to Australia.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

2.03

(1)Verdcourt (1971) found the species in grassland, bushland and open forest, from 0 to 2520 m. [elevational distribution >1000 m] (2)Found between 16ºN and 31ºS, at low altitudes in the subtropics and higher altitudes, up to 2,250 m, in the tropics, mostly in areas with an average annual temperature between about 18 and 26ºC. Grows best under relatively mild conditions (optimum day night temperature 26/21ºC). Commences growth earlier in the season than most other warm season legumes. Tops are killed by frost, but plants recover from basal shoots. Generally poor long-term persistence in frosted areas.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. (2)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

2.04

(1)Distrb. Africa to Madagascar, Mauritius, Ceylon, and New Guinea to Australia.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

2.05

(1)Because of its drought and disease resistance it proved to be promising in trial in many further more arid (sub)tropical countries in America, Asia and Africa, where (Kenya) the first experimental cultivations as a pasture forage crop had been made decades ago.

(1)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

3.01

(1)naturalized locally in Australia. (2)Macrotyloma axillare (E. Mey.) Verdc. var. glabrum (E. Mey.) Verdc. Status: Naturalized Distribution: O (Waialua District) (3)Macrotyloma axillare (E. Mey.) Verdc. New state record Native in a wide range across sub-Saharan Africa, M. axillare is also found on several Indian Ocean islands as well as Madagascar and Sri Lanka (Wiersema et al., 1990). The cited voucher specimen was misidentified as Lablab purpureus. The two genera are separable based on floral characters: Macrotyloma has flowers in greenish to yellow shades, the style not thickened and tending to be inconspicuous; Lablab (and Dolichos) has flowers in purple shades, the style conspicuous and thickened (Gillett et al., 1971). It is possible that M. axillare is more widespread in the Hawaiian Islands than the single voucher specimen indicates; this species is used as a forage and fodder crop and it may have been planted for similar purposes in the islands. The following description is adapted from the papilionoid legume account for the Flora of Tropical East Africa (Gillett et al., 1971). Plants are twining perennial herbs from a stout rootstock; the leaves trifoliolate, the leaflets varying from elliptic to subrhombic, 1–7.5 cm long and 0.7–4.2 cm wide; the flowers 1.2–2.4 cm long, whitish or green to yellow, the standard petal with a central red or purplish spot. Fruits are linear-oblong pods, 3–8 cm long and 6–8 mm wide, containing round to ellipsoid, black-mottled, buff to dark red seeds, each 3–4.2 mm long. Three varieties are recognized (Gillett et al., 1971); Hawaiian plants are referable to var. glabrum (E. Mey.) Verdc. Material examined. O‘AHU: Waialua Distr., Waialua, Keälia Trail, in overgrown grazing land, 390 m, 16 Jun 1985, J. Lau 1096.5. (4)It has become naturalized near Gympie in south-east Queensland and between Tolga and Walkamin on the Atherton Tablelands in north Queensland.

(1)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. (2)http://persoon.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/result.cfm?genus=
Macrotyloma&species=axillare&rank1=var.&epithet1=glabrum [Accessed 31 Mar 2009] (3)Staples, G. W., C. T. Imada, and D. R. Herbst. 2001. New Hawaiian plant records for 2001. Pp. 7-21 in N. L. Evenhuis and L. G. Eldredge (eds.). RECORDS OF THE HAWAII BIOLOGICAL SURVEY FOR 2001–2002 PART 2: NOTES. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 74: 1-78. (4)Blumenthal, M. J. and I. B. Staples. 1993. Origin, evaluation and use of Macrotyloma as forage - a review. Tropical Grasslands 27: 16-29.

3.02

(1)A pasture legume with impacts in forests and bushlands [see 3.04]

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/macrotyloma_axillare/ [Accessed 01 Ape 2009]

3.03

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/macrotyloma_axillare/ [Accessed 01 Ape 2009]

3.04

(1)Weed potential: Has become a serious weed in open forest and woodland, where it climbs on woody vegetation, damaging the growth form of developing saplings. (2)The following is a list of introduced plants which readily spread to bushland and waterways...Macrotyloma axillare Pasture legume spread by seed (3)Introduced vines are a major threat to rainforest fragments in Queensland and New South Wales, which they destroy by smothering. The most invasive vines in Australia are escaped garden plants, not pasture legumes, but some legumes appear to be spreading rapdily, and may become major weeds soon. Glycine (Neonotonia wightii), calopo (Calopogonium mucunoides), centro, axillaris (Macrotyloma axillare) and siratro are all behaving as weeds. (4)Archer axillaris is a trailing and twining perennial legume that develops a strong woody taproot. It has moderate shade tolerance and the ability to climb up trees. The young growth of the legume is less palatable then old growth and initially not relished by cattle. However, once cattle become accustomed they will readily eat the legume, but will select other legumes where available. Commercial seed is not available and Archer axillaris is not recommended for planting due to its low palatability and risk of becoming a weed in native woodlands and forests. (5)Appendix 3: A national listing of the naturalised non-native flora of Australia arranged alphabetically by genus then species. National categories of these 2681 species in the Australian flora are listed according to their impact, weed status, ability to be controlled and their potential for further spread in natural ecosystems. [list includes Macrotyloma axillare with an Australia rating of 3...Naturalised and known to be a minor problem warranting control at 4 or more locations within a State or Territory]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009] (2)http://www.goldcoast.qld.gov.au/attachment%5Cplanningscheme%5Cpolicies%5Cbushcare_2.pdf [Accessed 31 Mar 2009] (3)Low, T. 1997. Tropical pasture plants as weeds. Tropical Grasslands 31: 337-343. (4)http://www.mwnrm.org.au/publications/downloads/sown-pastures.pdf [Accessed 01 Apr 2009] (5)Groves, R.H. (Convenor), Hosking, J.R., Batianoff, G.N., Cooke, Cowie, I.D., Johnson, R.W., Keighery, G.J., Lepschi, B.J., Mitchell, Moerkerk, M., Randall, R.P., Rozefelds, A.C., Walsh N.G., and Waterhouse, B.M. 2003. Weed categories for natural and agricultural ecosystem management. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra.

3.05

(1)List of exotic plants that have naturalised within the Wet Tropics Bioregion [includes Macrotyloma uniflorum but with no description of impacts listed]

(1)Werren, G. 2001. ENVIRONMENTAL WEEDS OF THE WET TROPICS BIOREGION: RISK ASSESSMENT & PRIORITY RANKING. Rainforest CRC, James Campbell University. Cairns, Australia.

4.01

(1)Climbing or trailing vines; stems perennial, to about 3.5 m long, glabrescent [no spines, thorns or burrs]

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

4.02

(1)Grows successfully with tufted grasses and other twining legumes. [no evidence]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

4.03

(1)Climbing or trailing vines; stems perennial, to about 3.5 m long, glabrescent.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

4.04

(1)Animal food (potential as forage) (2)Cultivated as a perennial pasture crop in Australia, mostly with rotational grazing. (3)Because of its erect main stem, and no tendency to develop adventitious roots on prostrate stems, M. axillare is susceptible to regular or heavy grazing. Plants become dormant during the cool season, and may be grazed heavily until growth resumes in spring. In non-agroforestry situations where plants do not have the benefit from and protection afforded by trees, rotational grazing with fairly long intervals between grazings is necessary for replenishment and survival of stand.

(1)Wiersema, J. H. and B. León. 1999. World economic plants: a standard reference. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. (2)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. (3)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

4.05

(1)Animal food (potential as forage) (2)Cultivated as a perennial pasture crop in Australia, mostly with rotational grazing. (3)Toxicity: No record of toxicity.

(1)Wiersema, J. H. and B. León. 1999. World economic plants: a standard reference. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. (2)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. (3)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

4.06

(1)Because of its drought and disease resistance it proved to be promising in trial in many further more arid (sub)tropical countries in America, Asia and Africa, where (Kenya) the first experimental cultivations as a pasture forage crop had been made decades ago. (2)M axillare, M. lathyroides and M. uniflorum have been used widely in Australian pastures and elsewhere, as they are relatively free of diseases. (3)Pests and diseases: Very low disease incidence. Main disease is legume little-leaf caused by a phytoplasma . Rarely affected by amnemus weevil (Amnemus quadrituberculatus) or rough brown weevil (Baryopadus corrugatus) (both Coleoptera, Curculionidae). Bean fly (Ophiomyia (Agromyza, Melanagromyza) phaseoli: Diptera, Agromyzidae) sometimes attacks young seedlings, but not as commonly as with Macroptilium spp. Also susceptible to root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and reniform nematode (Rotylenchus reniformis). (4)M. axillare is remarkably free of pests and diseases.

(1)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. (2)Giller, K. E. 2001. Nitrogen fixation in tropical cropping systems. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. (3)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009] (4)Skerman, P. J. 1977. Tropical Forage Legumes. FAO, Rome.

4.07

(1)Toxicity: No record of toxicity.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

4.08

(1)Fire: Older plants recover well following fire, and germination of soil seed is enhanced, with a consequent improvement in stand density. [possibly could carry fire into tree crowns, but no evidence of increased fire risk found in literature]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

4.09

(1)Light Has moderate shade tolerance, thriving in agroforestry situations under tree canopies with about 50% light interception.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

4.10

(1)Often found on deep stony and sandy loam soils, but also on loams and clay loams. Not well adapted to heavier clays or hard-setting soils. In cultivation, grown on sands to clays, providing they are well drained. Prefers a pH between 6 and 7, but grows successfully between 5.5 and 7.5. Indications are that more acid conditions have an adverse influence on the effectiveness of nodulation of M. axillare , rather than on plant growth itself. Tolerates moderate salinity (4-10 dS/m). Considered useful in renovating soils that have become unproductive through continuous cultivation. Appears to grow better on less fertile soils, initially growing Eucalyptus spp., than on fertile, previously-rainforest soils where Neonotonia wightii is better adapted.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

4.11

(1)Climbing or trailing vines; stems perennial, to about 3.5 m long, glabrescent. (2)If left unchecked, it will grow over other species, which is an advantage in the suppression of shrubby weeds, but a disadvantage where tree recruitment is sought in an agroforestry situation. (3)Ability to compete with weeds: Excellent. Tutt and Luck (1969) found that it successfully controlled the shrubby Eupatorium in south-east coastal Queensland if allowed to grow vigorously from June to September.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. (2)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009] (3)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/GBASE/data/pf000051.htm [Accessed 01 Apr 2009]

4.12

(1)Climbing or trailing vines; stems perennial, to about 3.5 m long, glabrescent. (2)If left unchecked, it will grow over other species, which is an advantage in the suppression of shrubby weeds, but a disadvantage where tree recruitment is sought in an agroforestry situation.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. (2)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

5.01

(1)Climbing or trailing vines; stems perennial, to about 3.5 m long, glabrescent.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

5.02

(1)Fabaceae

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

5.03

(1)Climbing or trailing vines; stems perennial, to about 3.5 m long, glabrescent. [not woody]

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

5.04

(1)Climbing or trailing vines; stems perennial, to about 3.5 m long, glabrescent.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., F. R. Fosberg, W. D. Clayton and H. Trimen. 1980. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

6.01

(1)No evidence

1)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

6.02

(1)Seeds subovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2.5-3 mm broad, hard and smooth, buff to reddish brown, with sparse to dense black mottling

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)Self-fertile, the flowers being cleistogamous. Diploid , 2n = 20.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

6.05

(1)Flowers are self-fertile and cleistogamous, although evidence of some cross-pollination by insects.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_uniflorum.htm [Accessed 01 Apr 2009]

6.06

(1)Because of its erect main stem, and no tendency to develop adventitious roots on prostrate stems, M. axillare is susceptible to regular or heavy grazing.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

6.07

(1)Exhibits juvenility in flowering in the year of establishment, but in succeeding years, flowers over much of the growing season. Flowering and seeding may continue until the plants are frosted, or in frost-free areas, continue throughout the winter and early spring. Pods mature 30-60 days after flowering, depending on temperature during development.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

7.01

(1)Seeds subovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2.5-3 mm broad, hard and smooth, buff to reddish brown, with sparse to dense black mottling; 50,000-200,000 seeds/kg. [fairly large seeds with no means of external attachment]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

7.02

(1)Because of its drought and disease resistance it proved to be promising in trial in many further more arid (sub)tropical countries in America, Asia and Africa, where (Kenya) the first experimental cultivations as a pasture forage crop had been made decades ago. [planted intentionally as a fodder crop for cattle]

(1)Mansfeld, R. and R. Büttner. 2001. Mansfeld's encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

7.03

(1)Seeds subovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2.5-3 mm broad, hard and smooth, buff to reddish brown, with sparse to dense black mottling; 50,000-200,000 seeds/kg. [fairly large seeds unlikely to accidentally contaminate produce]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

7.04

(1)If protected while seeding, seed will shatter and later germinate to thicken the sward...Spreads by virtue of stem elongation and violent shattering of mature pods. [probably short distance gravity dispersal, not adapted for long distance wind dispersal]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

7.05

(1)Pod linear oblong, shortly stipitate, laterally flattened, 3-8 cm long, and 5-8 mm broad, glabrous to pubescent, with terminal point up to 7 mm long; containing (5-) 7-8 (-9) seeds. Seeds subovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2.5-3 mm broad, hard and smooth, buff to reddish brown, with sparse to dense black mottling [no indication that seeds or pods are buoyant]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

7.06

(1)Seeds subovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2.5-3 mm broad, hard and smooth, buff to reddish brown, with sparse to dense black mottling; 50,000-200,000 seeds/kg. [not fleshy-fruited]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

7.07

(1)Seeds subovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2.5-3 mm broad, hard and smooth, buff to reddish brown, with sparse to dense black mottling; 50,000-200,000 seeds/kg. [no means of external attachment]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

7.08

(1)Spreads by virtue of stem elongation and violent shattering of mature pods. Seed is also ingested by cattle, a proportion passing through the animal undigested and germinating in dung pats.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

8.01

(1)Seeds subovoid, 3-4 mm long, 2.5-3 mm broad, hard and smooth, buff to reddish brown, with sparse to dense black mottling; 50,000-200,000 seeds/kg. [dense cover of plants potentially produces high seed densities, but see reference 2] (2)Seed production is poor because of sparse flowering. Davies and Hutton (1970) give seed yields of 200 to 560 kg./ha, but 100 to 150 kg./ha is more common.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009] (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/GBASE/data/pf000051.htm [Accessed 01 Apr 2009]

8.02

(1)While hand-harvested seed has high levels of hard seed requiring scarification prior to planting, machine-harvested seed receives sufficient scarification during the threshing process. Normally sown into a well-prepared seedbed at 2-4 kg/ha seed at a depth of 1-2.5 cm, although can be established by broadcasting seed onto the surface following severe fire. [hard-seeded legume]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

8.03

(1)Herbicide effects: Tolerant of pre-emergent benfluralin. Seedlings susceptible to acifluorfen, 2,4-DB and 2,4-D, but tolerant of bentazone, fluazifop-butyl and sethoxydim. 2,4-DB can be used on established stands at rates of up to 2.5 kg/ha active ingredient, but not 2,4-D that is lethal even at 0.6 kg/ha a.i. [some herbicide tolerance, but tests are for non-target effects, and not to control M. axillare]

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

8.04

(1)Fire: Older plants recover well following fire, and germination of soil seed is enhanced, with a consequent improvement in stand density.

(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Macrotyloma_axillare.htm [Accessed 31 Mar 2009]

8.05

Unknown [probably no natural enemies if naturalizing in Hawaii (see 3.01) and with few natural pests and pathogens (see 4.06)]