Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Gliricidia sepium; mother of cocoa

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-3

Source

Notes

1.01

http://www.fao.org/ag/aGp/agpc/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e07.htm

Domestication of gliricidia has been in progress for several millennia and the multitude of indigenous common names from Mayan and Quiche peoples

1.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2) Little and Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. USDA, Washington, DC. 3)http://newcrop.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gliricidia_sepium.html 4)Long and Lakela A flora of tropical Florida. University of Miami Press 5) Stanley and Ross. 1986. Flora of South-eastern Queensland. Queensland Department of Primary Industries 6)Adams 1972. Flowering plant of Jamaica. University of the West Indies , Mona.

reported to be "locally naturalized" around Durban in South Africa. 2)"becoming naturalized in West Indies". " It may be locally naturalized.." in Puerto Rico "recorded as naturalized in the Philippine Islands" 3)"naturalized throughout the tropics" BUT information on this web page comes from reference 2 above. 4) Not listed as naturalized in Florida 5)Not listed as naturalized in Queensland 6)In Jamaica "mostly planted, as fenceposts and hedges"

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 27N to 9N
List of countries with natural populations
Central America: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, North America, Mexico

2.02

2.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 27N to 9N
Climate
In its native range G. sepium grows mainly in subhumid, seasonally dry tropical climates with annual rainfall of 600-1500 mm and a 4-5 month dry season (Hughes, 1987; Parrotta, 1992; Simons, 1996a). However, it has been successfully grown in much wetter, humid, non-seasonal climates with annual rainfall as high as 3500 mm. It tolerates light night frosts, but not prolonged frosts and does not grow well in subtropical areas, where leaves are shed with the onset of winter, when night temperatures fall below 15 degreeC (Whiteman et al., 1986; Wiersum and Nitis, 1997). G. sepium can be managed in a coppice system in areas with frost by cutting new growth before frosts occur (Stewart et al., 1992).
A modified description of climatic requirements (see climatic data table of this data sheet) was prepared by CSIRO (see Booth and Jovanovic, 2000).
Descriptors
- Altitude range: 0 - 2000 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 600 - 3500 mm
- Rainf

2.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 27N to 9N
List of countries with natural populations
Central America: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, North America, Mexico

2.05

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Location of introductions
G. sepium was introduced from Mexico to the Philippines before 1815, probably much earlier, and possibly as early as the early 1600s (Wiersum and Dirdjosoemarto, 1987) along with at least 200 other tropical American species, including other woody legumes such as Acacia, Leucaena, Pithecellobium, Prosopis and Samanea, aboard one of the annual Spanish government galleons that sailed from Acapulco to Manila during the period from 1521 to 1815 (Merrill, 1912).
An early introduction to many other countries, principally for use as a shade tree over cacao, coffee or tea plantations, has been documented: to the Caribbean before 1850 (Ford, 1987), and to Sri Lanka in the 1880s based on seed from a single tree from Trinidad (Hughes, 1987). G. sepium has subsequently spread to India, Indonesia (about 1900: Wiersum and Nitis, 1997), West Africa and Uganda in the early 20th Century (Tothill, 1940), and to Kenya from the Caribbean in 1930 (Streets, 1962). These sporadic early introductions have

3.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2) Little and Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. USDA, Washington, DC. 3)http://newcrop.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gliricidia_sepium.html 4)Long and Lakela A flora of tropical Florida. University of Miami Press 5) Stanley and Ross. 1986. Flora of South-eastern Queensland. Queensland Department of Primary Industries 6)Adams 1972. Flowering plant of Jamaica. University of the West Indies , Mona.

reported to be "locally naturalized" around Durban in South Africa. 2)"becoming naturalized in West Indies". " It may be locally naturalized.." in Puerto Rico "recorded as naturalized in the Philippine Islands" 3)"naturalized throughout the tropics" BUT information on this web page comes from reference 2 above. 4) Not listed as naturalized in Florida 5)Not listed as naturalized in Queensland 6)In Jamaica "mostly planted, as fenceposts and hedges"

3.02

(1) Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. New York, USA: Wiley. (2) CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

(2) It is recorded as "present" in Jamaica (Holm et al., 1979) (not a serious, principle or common weed) (2) "As a strong light demander and colonizer, it may invade disturbed sites where it can set seed, but it is unlikely to invade closed forest communities or to ever become one of the world's worst weeds, as in many areas seed set is extremely low and natural regeneration poor."

3.03

no evidence

3.04

no evidence

3.05

no evidence

4.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

G. sepium forms a small to medium-sized, thornless, single- or multiple-stemmed tree; 2-15 m and occasionally 20 m tall, and 5-30 cm and occasionally 1 m diameter, with an open rounded crown, often greatly modified by lopping.

4.02

no evidence

4.03

autotrophic tree

4.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

However, palatability may be extremely problematic in some areas e.g. West Africa, India and the Philippines, (Simons AJ, Stewart JL, Gutteridge RC (ed), Shelton HM, 1994. Gliricidia sepium - a multipurpose forage tree legume. Forage-tree-legumes-in-tropical-agriculture. 1994, 30-48; 5 pp. of ref.; Stewart JL, 1996. Utilization. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ, eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic Resources for Farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute 33-48.), possibly due to anti-nutritional factors such as flavonols and phenols. This means that ruminants unaccustomed to eating G. sepium may initially refuse it, and may take a long period to become accustomed to it; eventually ruminants may consume a high proportion in their diet for extended periods of time (Wiersum and Nitis, 1997). Poor palatability is thought to be caused by the odour of the leaves, possibly attributable to presence of coumarin or other volatile substances released from the leaf surface (Stewart, 1996).

4.05

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2)http://newcrop.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gliricidia_sepium.html

G. sepium is an important forage crop in cut-and-carry systems in many parts of the tropics including South-East Asia, Sri Lanka, Colombia and the Caribbean (Falvey JL, 1982. Gliricidia maculata - a review. International-Tree-Crops-Journal. 1982, 2: 1, 1-14; 1 pl.; 30 ref.; Chadhokar PA, 1982. Gliricidia maculata. A promising legume forage plant. World Animal Review, 44:36-43.; Simons AJ, Stewart JL, Gutteridge RC (ed), Shelton HM, 1994. Gliricidia sepium - a multipurpose forage tree legume. Forage-tree-legumes-in-tropical-agriculture. 1994, 30-48; 5 pp. of ref.; Stewart JL, 1996. Utilization. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ, eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic Resources for Farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute 33-48.). Some toxicity effects have also been documented, possibly caused by conversion of coumarin to dicoumarol, a haemorrhagic compound, during fermentation (Simons and Stewart, 1994). Despite these mixed perceptions G. sepium remains an important high quality

4.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Protection
Pests recorded
Fungus diseases:
Cercosporidium gliricidiasis
Cladosporium
Colletotrichum truncatum
Glomerella cingulata
Sirosporium gliricidiae
Sphaceloma
Information presented here is derived largely from a survey of diseases and insect pests of G. sepium by Boa and Lenne (1996). Although there are more than 30 fungal pathogens listed for G. sepium (Boa and Lenne, 1994), it has so far remained remarkably free of serious diseases throughout its very extensive cultivated range (Lenne, 1992). However, two potentially serious diseases (see next paragraph), which adversely affect trees within the native range have the potential to cause serious problems if introduced elsewhere (Boa and Lenne, 1996).
Recent surveys in the natural populations have revealed a new virus-like disease and a serious 'little leaf' disease (Boa and Lenne, 1994, 1996). Little leaf disease, thought to be caused by a phytoplasma, is common in fenceline and natural populations, especially in Honduras and Guatemala, and is associa

4.07

no evidence

4.08

no evidence

4.09

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

As a strong light demander and colonizer, it may invade disturbed sites where it can set seed, but it is unlikely to invade closed forest communities or to ever become one of the world's worst weeds, as in many areas seed set is extremely low and natural regeneration poor.

4.1

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Soil and physiography
In its native range G. sepium is found on a wide range of soil types from pure sand, on coastal dunes to heavy black clay vertisols, but is most commonly found on freely drained, rocky, superficial, skeletal, unstratified regasols of volcanic or alluvial origin. It tolerates both alkaline and moderately acidic soils with pH in the range 4.5-11.0 and is more tolerant of acid soils and low fertility than Leucaena.
In its native range it often grows on coastal sand dunes, sometimes forming extensive thickets in large areas of shifting sand (e.g. coastal Oaxaca on the Tehuantepec Isthmus in southern Mexico) (Hughes, 1987). In these areas it tolerates sand accumulation to depths of several meters around the base of the trees and salt-laden winds, although there is no evidence that it tolerates more than mildly saline soils.
Descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral; alkaline
- Special soil tolerances: shallow; infertile

4.11

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

G. sepium forms a small to medium-sized, thornless, single- or multiple-stemmed tree; 2-15 m and occasionally 20 m tall, and 5-30 cm and occasionally 1 m diameter, with an open rounded crown, often greatly modified by lopping.

4.12

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2)http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/hort400/mpts/gliricid.html

Vegetation types: coastal plant communities; deciduous forests; dry forests; dunes; sclerophyllous scrub; secondary forests; thicket 2)Gliricidia grows in tropical deciduous forest on hillsides and ravines, often in cutover and weedy areas.

5.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

G. sepium forms a small to medium-sized, thornless, single- or multiple-stemmed tree; 2-15 m and occasionally 20 m tall, and 5-30 cm and occasionally 1 m diameter, with an open rounded crown, often greatly modified by lopping.

5.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

G. sepium forms a small to medium-sized, thornless, single- or multiple-stemmed tree; 2-15 m and occasionally 20 m tall, and 5-30 cm and occasionally 1 m diameter, with an open rounded crown, often greatly modified by lopping.

5.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

G. sepium is nitrogen fixing and nodulation has been observed to occur widely both in its native range and where introduced in Asia (Allen ON, Allen EK, 1981. The Leguminosae. A source book of characteristics, uses and nodulation. London, UK: MacMillan Publishers Ltd.).

5.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

G. sepium forms a small to medium-sized, thornless, single- or multiple-stemmed tree; 2-15 m and occasionally 20 m tall, and 5-30 cm and occasionally 1 m diameter, with an open rounded crown, often greatly modified by lopping.

6.01

no evidence

6.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"G. sepium can be propagated easily by seed "

6.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Simons (1996a) showed that G. sepium and G. maculata are sexually compatible by creating a set of artificial hybrids between these two species. The hybrids lacked vigour and flowered more precociously and abundantly than either parent, and appear to have little potential for planting.

6.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"It is an obligate outcrossing species with a strong self- incompatibility mechanism."

6.05

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Flowers are insect pollinated, visited by a limited variety of insects, but large bees, such as Xylocopa fimbriata, rewarded by abundant nectar production, are the principal pollinators (Janzen, 1983; Simons, 1996a; Wiersum and Nitis, 1997) in the native range. Although such bees are capable of distributing pollen over distances of several kilometres, Dawson and Chamberlain (1996) detected pollen flow usually over 75 m or less, but occasionally more than 250 m. In more humid areas, shoot growth may be continuous, and trees remain leafy all year with only sporadic flowering, and often very sparse or no seed set.

6.06

no evidence

6.07

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2)http://www.fao.org/ag/aGp/agpc/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e07.htm

Flowering may start at 6-24 months of age. 2)The periodicity of pod ripening is partly dependent upon the climatic conditions and typically takes 45-60 days.

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

G. sepium was introduced from Mexico to the Philippines before 1815, probably much earlier, and possibly as early as the early 1600s (Wiersum and Dirdjosoemarto, 1987) along with at least 200 other tropical American species, including other woody legumes such as Acacia, Leucaena, Pithecellobium, Prosopis and Samanea, aboard one of the annual Spanish government galleons that sailed from Acapulco to Manila during the period from 1521 to 1815 (Merrill, 1912).
An early introduction to many other countries, principally for use as a shade tree over cacao, coffee or tea plantations, has been documented: to the Caribbean before 1850 (Ford, 1987), and to Sri Lanka in the 1880s based on seed from a single tree from Trinidad (Hughes, 1987). G. sepium has subsequently spread to India, Indonesia (about 1900: Wiersum and Nitis, 1997), West Africa and Uganda in the early 20th Century (Tothill, 1940), and to Kenya from the Caribbean in 1930 (Streets, 1962). These sporadic early introductions have been supplemented by even m

7.03

no evidence

7.04

Pod opening is explosive and can catapult seed up to 25 m from drying patios (up to 40 m from standing trees: Simons AJ, 1996. Seed orchards and breeding. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic Resources for farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute, 119-125.)

7.05

Pod opening is explosive and can catapult seed up to 25 m from drying patios (up to 40 m from standing trees: Simons AJ, 1996. Seed orchards and breeding. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic Resources for farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute, 119-125.)

7.06

Pod opening is explosive and can catapult seed up to 25 m from drying patios (up to 40 m from standing trees: Simons AJ, 1996. Seed orchards and breeding. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic Resources for farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute, 119-125.)

7.07

Pod opening is explosive and can catapult seed up to 25 m from drying patios (up to 40 m from standing trees: Simons AJ, 1996. Seed orchards and breeding. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic Resources for farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute, 119-125.)

7.08

no evidence

8.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

average 29.04 seeds/square meter [There are 4700-11,000 seeds per kilogram (Hughes CE, 1987. Biological considerations in designing a seed collection strategy for Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. (Leguminosae). Commonwealth-Forestry-Review. 1987, 66: 1, 31-48; 38 ref.). Seeds germinate within 3-10 days without pretreatment (Whiteman PC, Oka GM, Marmin S, Chand S, Gutteridge RC, 1986. Studies on the germination, growth and winter survival of Gliricidia maculata in south-eastern Queensland. International-Tree-Crops-Journal. 1986, 3: 4, 245-255; 15 ref.
). Seed production in an 18-month-old seed orchard in Nigeria averaged 37 kg/ha (SSumberg JE, 1985. Note on flowering and seed production in a young Gliricidia sepium seed orchard. Tropical-Agriculture,-UK. 1985, 62: 1, 17-19; 6 ref.
), but can be much higher in climatically favourable areas (Simons, 1996b). However, seed production in more humid, non-seasonal environments can be very low (Hughes, 1987; Allison GE, Simons AJ, 1996. Propagation and husbandry. In: S

8.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Seeds are orthodox and can be stored without loss of viability for at least 5 years under normal seed storage conditions (<10% moisture content and <4 degreeC in sealed containers) (Allison GE, Simons AJ, 1996. Propagation and husbandry. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic resources for farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute, 49-71.). Seeds germinate within 3-10 days without pretreatment (Whiteman PC, Oka GM, Marmin S, Chand S, Gutteridge RC, 1986. Studies on the germination, growth and winter survival of Gliricidia maculata in south-eastern Queensland. International-Tree-Crops-Journal. 1986, 3: 4, 245-255; 15 ref.).

8.03

no evidence

8.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

It withstands fire well by quickly resprouting after damage. This explains the abundance of trees in secondary vegetation and bush fallows in many parts of Central America (Hughes CE, 1987. Biological considerations in designing a seed collection strategy for Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. (Leguminosae). Commonwealth-Forestry-Review. 1987, 66: 1, 31-48; 38 ref.
; Simons AJ, 1996. Ecology and reproductive biology. In: Stewart JL, Allison GE, Simons AJ eds. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic Resources for Farmers. Tropical Forestry Paper 33. Oxford, UK: Oxford Forestry Institute, 19-31.).

8.05

no evidence