Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Ficus religiosa, bo tree, peepul tree, bodhi tree

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

n

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

y

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-4

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

In Florida, seedlings were found in Homestead in 1975 and in Miami in 1988, though these were isolated events and did not persist (Nadel et al. 1992). The wasps for these sporadic events were never recovered so it is uncertain whether the pollinator wasps simply did not survive or if other pollinator wasps were responsible. The pollinator wasp for the native F. aurea, Pegoscapus jimenezi (Grandi), has been found intruding into syconia of two non-native figs, F. septica and F. religiosa. In Israel, F. religiosa and it's associated pollinator wasp, Blastophaga quadraticeps are now both established and producing seedlings near irrigated areas and in exceptionally moist microhabitats.

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 30N to 5S
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Yunnan, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam
List of countries where planted
Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore
Africa: Egypt, Madagascar
North America [USA] Florida

2.02

2.03

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) Horticopia A-Z.Horticopia, Inc., Purcellville, VA. ISBN 1-887215-07-7.
(3) http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

(1) Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 30N to 5S
Climate descriptors
- Altitude range: 10 - 1500 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 500 - 5000 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; uniform
- Dry season duration: no data available
- Mean annual temperature: 22 - 24C
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 27 - 32C
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 14 - 20C
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 0C
(2) Hardiness Range 10B to 11
(3) F. religiosa is a sacred tree native to India where it grows up to elevations of 5,000 ft (1,524 m)

2.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 30N to 5S
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Yunnan, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam
List of countries where planted
Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore
Africa: Egypt, Madagascar
North America [USA] Florida

2.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

List of countries where planted
Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore
Africa: Egypt, Madagascar
North America [USA] Florida

3.01

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

In Florida, seedlings were found in Homestead in 1975 and in Miami in 1988, though these were isolated events and did not persist (Nadel et al. 1992). The wasps for these sporadic events were never recovered so it is uncertain whether the pollinator wasps simply did not survive or if other pollinator wasps were responsible. The pollinator wasp for the native F. aurea, Pegoscapus jimenezi (Grandi), has been found intruding into syconia of two non-native figs, F. septica and F. religiosa. In Israel, F. religiosa and it's associated pollinator wasp, Blastophaga quadraticeps are now both established and producing seedlings near irrigated areas and in exceptionally moist microhabitats.

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

no evidence

3.05

(1) Weeds in New Zealand (http://www.boprc.govt.nz/www/green/weedindx.htm) contact: norb@kcbbs.gen.nz
(2)Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. FLEPPC 1999 List of Florida's Most Invasive Species. Internet: http://www.fau.edu/envsci/99list.htm

(1) F. pumila and F. rubiginosa are prohibited from propagation, sale and distribution in New Zealand.
(2) F. microcarpa was listed in Category I—(Species that are invading and disrupting native plant communities in Florida. This definition does not rely on the economic severity or geographic range of the problem, but on the documented ecological damage caused. ) F. altissma was listed in Category II—Species that have shown a potential to disrupt native plant communities. These species may become ranked as Category I, but have not yet demonstrated disruption of natural Florida communities.

4.01

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

no description of these traits

4.02

Dhawan, S. R.; Poonam Dhawan (1995) Biocontrol of congress grass: studies on seed germination. World Weeds, 1995, Vol.2, No.1, pp.3-9, 28 ref.

AB: Experiments were conducted to assess the allelopathic effects of water extracts of leaves of 10 herbaceous and woody plants on germination of congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus ) seeds collected from Chandigarh, Kurukshetra, Jind, Delhi and Meerut. Results indicated that, although seeds from different locations varied in their response, overall inhibition of seed germination occurred as a result of, in decreasing order, pigeon peas (73.9%), Albizia lebbe[c]k (47.2%), Cassia tora (41.25%), C. fistula (41.0%), Ficus religiosa (36.04%), Acacia nilotica (34.0%), Eucalyptus tereticornis (26.2%), Azadirachta indica (21.75%), Brassica campestris (21.6%) and Clerodendrum inerme (10.25%). [lab only]

4.03

no evidence

4.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. religiosa produces good quality fodder

4.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

F. religiosa produces good quality fodder

4.06

(1) Nema, A. G. (2001) Studies on Angular leaf-spot of Pipal (Ficus religiosa Linn.). Advances in Plant Sciences, 2001, Vol.14, No.1, pp.287-289, 12 ref.
(2) Mukhopadhyay, A.; Saha, B. (1995) Nutrient requirement of seed bug (Elasmolomus sordidus ) (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) on four host seeds. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 1995, Vol.65, No.2, pp.154-155, 5 ref.
(3) Ramaseshiah, G.; Bali, R. (1987) On the identity of a lymantriid defoliator of cashew and cocoa in south India. Current Science, India, 1987, Vol.56, No.22, pp.1191-1192, 7 ref.

(1) Xanthomonas campestris pv. fici was known to cause leaf spot on ornamental plants F. benjamina [minor plant] (http://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/Foliage/Resrpts/rh_90_3.htm)
(2) AB: Fifth-instar larvae and adults of Elasmolomus sordidus showed the highest consumption and weight gain on seeds of sesame, followed by those of groundnut, wheat and Ficus religiosa , a non-economic host. Fourth-instar larvae showed the highest consumption and weight gain on groundnut seeds. [WIDE HOST RANGE]
(3) AB: Lymantria ampla was observed damaging cashew and cocoa during a survey in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, India, in 1985-86. The braconids Aleiodes sp., Apanteles obliquae, Apanteles sp. (A. glomeratus group), the eulophid Euplectrus sp., the chalcidid Brachymeria porthetrialis and the tachinids Blepharipa sp., Carcelia sp., Exorista sp. and Palexorista sp. were reared from L. ampla collected on cashew in Tamil Nadu. A list of 19 species observed parasitizing L. ampla on Ficus religiosa and Casuarina equisetifolia in Karnataka

4.07

Pundir, Y. P. S.; Dhan Singh (1998) Wild food plants of Jaunsar Bawar - IV. The Ficus species. World Weeds, 1998, Vol.5, No.1/2, pp.91-103, 6 ref.

AB: This paper reports 13 wild species of Ficus found to be used as food plants in Jaunsar-Bawar in the Western Himalayas, Uttar Pradesh (India) during a survey performed in 1997 and 1998. The species recorded include F. benghalensis , F. glomerata , F. hispida , F. religiosa , F. roxburghii and F. rumphii . A description of each species, common habitats, phenology and uses are given.

4.08

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) Horticopia A-Z.Horticopia, Inc., Purcellville, VA. ISBN 1-887215-07-7.

(1) deciduousn, (2)Low flammability

4.09

(1)Horticopia A-Z.Horticopia, Inc., Purcellville, VA. ISBN 1-887215-07-7. (2)http://www.bonsai-bci.com/species/ficus.html

(1)Exposure Partial shade or partial sun to full sun (2)Needs much more light (2000 Lux) than the average Ficus.

4.1

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) Horticopia A-Z.Horticopia, Inc., Purcellville, VA. ISBN 1-887215-07-7.

(1) - Soil texture: light
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: neutral
(2) Soil Condition Loamy, sandy, clay, acidic, neutral, alkaline, tolerates salt, drought tolerant

4.11

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

often an epiphyte when young.

4.12

no evidence

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

tree; Moraceae

5.03

no evidence

5.04

tree

6.01

[Recruits easily, even in cracks of sidewalks and concrete buildings in India - personal observation. ]

6.02

AB: Ficus religiosa is one of the common ornamental trees in Israel but despite great numbers of drupelets accumulating on the ground around the trees none was found to germinate. In the laboratory the drupelets germinated readily at 25 deg C in the light; no germination took place in darkness. Constant humidity of the substrate was essential. Of the 8 different substrates tested, the highest germination (94%) was obtained on sandy loam and lowest (66%) on pieces of fresh fruit.

6.03

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

Pollinated only by species specific fig wasp; unlilkely to hybridize

6.04

Abdulrazak, I. P.; Abdurahiman, U. C. (2002) Distribution patterns of style lengths in Ficus and the ovipositor size of their chalcid pollinators (Agaonidae: Hymenoptera): an analytical study. Entomon, 2002, Vol.27, No.2, pp.197-204, 23 ref.

AB: "Four species of monoecious figs namely, Ficus religiosa, F. drupaceae, F. racemosa and F. benghalensis pollinated by Platyscapa quadraticeps, Eupristina belgaumensis, Ceratosolen fusciceps and Eupristina masoni , respectively, and gynodioecious species viz.,"

6.05

Pollination: The fruit (syconium or fig) and reproduction systems of species in the genus Ficus are unique. Each species of Ficus has an associated species of agaonid wasp (Hymenoptera: Chalcoidea: Agaonidae). Ficus species can only be pollinated by their associated agaonid wasps and in turn, the wasps can only lay eggs within their associated Ficus fruit. The pollinator wasp for F. religiosa is Blastophaga quadraticeps.
Propagation: In places where the pollinator

6.06

no evidence

6.07

http://www.icogitate.com/~tree/fig.w32.htm

A large, fast-growing deciduous tree.

7.01

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

Elsewhere in the world and in Hawai'i, trees are occasionally cultivated and are most often seen planted near temples.

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/acc_num/198500455.html

List of countries where planted
Asia: Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore
Africa: Egypt, Madagascar
North America [USA] Florida
 (2)This large deciduous tree is sacred to the Hindus and Buddhists, under which Budda received enlightment.

7.03

no evidence

7.04

fleshy fruit

7.05

no evidence

7.06

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

Dispersal: In Hawai'i, plants are spread mainly through horticulture trade. Various birds observed foraging and roosting in Ficus spp. trees on Maui that could be potential dispersal agents of F. religiosa seeds should they become viable include mynah birds (Acridotheres tristis tristis), blue faced doves (Geopelia striata), lace necked doves (Streptopelia chinensis), Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus), Northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis), and house sparrows (Passer domesticus), though there are probably more. Other animals, such as bats, pigs, rodents, parrots, and monkeys may be capable of spreading fruit. [POLLINATOR IS NOT PRESENT - NO BIRD DISPERSAL OF SEEDS] 

7.07

no evidence

7.08

assuming bird dispersal

8.01

Ficus synconium contain numberous minute fruits [pollinator is not present in Hawaii so no or few seeds are produced]

8.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Silvicultural practice descriptors
- Seed storage orthodox [SUGGESTS SEED BANK BUT NO SEEDS WITHOUT POLLINATOR]

8.03

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

Chemical control: A cut stump treatment with a chemical such as Garlon (triclopyr) would probably be effective in control.

8.04

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

(1) - Ability to suited for coppicing
(2) Physical control: F. religiosa can most likely be cut down but will probably re-grow without chemical treatment.

8.05

http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/ficus_religiosa.htm

Biological control: Currently there are no known biological controls for F. religiosa.