Euphorbia cyathophora Murr. Family - Euphorbiaceae. Common Names(s) - Fire-on-the-mountain. Synonym(s) - Euphorbia barbellata Engelm., Euphorbia graminifolia Michx., Euphorbia havanensis Willd. ex Schlecht. & Cham.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

7

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Staples, G.W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora: Plants Cultivated In The Hawaiian Islands And Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)This species is found worldwide in the tropics and warm temperate regions (2)native to the West Indies but is widely cultivated for the prominent red bases of the upper leaves.

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL. (2)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

2.02

2.03

(1)Hardiness: USDA Zone 4b: to -31.6 °C (-25 °F) USDA Zone 5a: to -28.8 °C (-20 °F) USDA Zone 5b: to -26.1 °C (-15 °F) USDA Zone 6a: to -23.3 °C (-10 °F) USDA Zone 6b: to -20.5 °C (-5 °F) USDA Zone 7a: to -17.7 °C (0 °F) USDA Zone 7b: to -14.9 °C (5 °F) USDA Zone 8a: to -12.2 °C (10 °F) USDA Zone 8b: to -9.4 °C (15 °F) USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F) USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F) USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F) USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) USDA Zone 11: above 4.5 °C (40 °F)

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/641/ [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

2.04

(1)This species is found worldwide in the tropics and warm temperate regions (2)native to the West Indies but is widely cultivated for the prominent red bases of the upper leaves. (3)naturalized in the Palau group of the Caroline Islands, in Hawaii known only from raised coralline plains at sea level, Barber's Point, Oahu.

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL. (2)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (3)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.05

(1)naturalized in the Palau group of the Caroline Islands, in Hawaii known only from raised coralline plains at sea level, Barber's Point, Oahu. (2)In Fiji, an abundantly naturalized weed occurring from near sea level to about 100 m in clearings, along roadsides and trails, and in coconut plantations and canefields; it is often abundant in coastal areas, frequently on sandy beaches (3)In Niue, "one of the commonest weeds of waste places all round the perimeter of the island. It is also found rather less frequently through the interior, in old plantations and by the roadside." (4)Occasional in disturbed places on Niue, but more of an escaped ornamental in Tonga and Samoa (5)Distribution: Midway/ Kauai/ Oahu/ Molokai/ Maui

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. (3)Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. (4)Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (5)http://www.botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/result.cfm?genus=
Euphorbia&species=cyathophora&rank1=&epithet1= [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

3.01

(1)naturalized in the Palau group of the Caroline Islands, in Hawaii known only from raised coralline plains at sea level, Barber's Point, Oahu. (2)In Fiji, an abundantly naturalized weed occurring from near sea level to about 100 m in clearings, along roadsides and trails, and in coconut plantations and canefields; it is often abundant in coastal areas, frequently on sandy beaches (3)In Niue, "one of the commonest weeds of waste places all round the perimeter of the island. It is also found rather less frequently through the interior, in old plantations and by the roadside." (4)Occasional in disturbed places on Niue, but more of an escaped ornamental in Tonga and Samoa (5)Distribution: Midway/ Kauai/ Oahu/ Molokai/ Maui

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. (3)Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. (4)Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (5)http://www.botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/result.cfm?genus=
Euphorbia&species=cyathophora&rank1=&epithet1= [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

3.02

(1)This plant is most common in disturbed areas and along roadsides. (2)One species that exists on the boundary between being a weed and being genuinely cultivated is Euphorbia cyathophora…Native from the southern U.S. throughout tropical America and the West Indies, E. cyathophora was formerly cultivated in Hawaii and is now naturalized as a weed. It often volunteers in dry, low-elevation gardens on several islands and is allowed to persist once the showy flowering bracts appear. (3)very invasive. more of a weed than a flower. no flowers, not showy. I've read in south america gets in soybeans and glycophosphate based herbicides doesn't kill it. I have pulled diligently and keeps springing up. [comment from Missouri gardener] (4)Habitat. Amongst tall trees, medium trees, pindan (in Canarium australianum dominated vine thicket; in Eucalyptus gomphocephala ta

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL. (2)Staples, G.W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora: Plants Cultivated In The Hawaiian Islands And Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. (3)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/641/ [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (4)http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/17342 [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (5)Inkson, T., Mike Smith and Isabelle Strachan. 2007. Garden Escapees & Other Weeds of Bushland & Reserves. Great Lakes Council.

3.03

(1)References on page do not list E. cyathophora as an agricultural weed

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/euphorbia_cyathophora/ [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

3.04

[mostly a disturbance weed but some references suggest environmental impacts] (1)Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cyathophora Painted Spurge Native of tropical America. An annual, erect herb, flowering most of the year. It is naturalized on coastal sands (Harden, 1990, p.425). It can form dense thickets up to 1.5 metres high (Cribb and Cribb, 1985, p.123) inhibiting native regeneration. (2)Painted Spurge, also known as Dwarf Poinsettia is an herbaceous small shrub native to Central America. This plant has become a serious invasive weed of hind dunes on the north coast. It usually invades after Bitou Bush control has taken place. It has been found on a vacant block of land next to the hind dune in Florida Street at The Entrance North

(1)Erskine, A., L. King and M. Delaney. 2002. Vegetation Management Plan Seven Mile Beach. Environmental Training and Employment (Northern Rivers) Inc. Lismore, Australia. (2)http://www.huntercouncils.com.au/environment/products/Weeds%20
Fact%20sheets%20and%20posters/Painted%20Spurge.doc. [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (3)http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/4295/ws023_paper_23.pdf [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

3.05

(2)This plant and the related entities and synonyms italicized and indented below are listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete noxious weed list for that location, or click here for a composite list of all Federal and State Noxious Weeds. Alaska: leafy spurge Noxious weed Arizona: leafy spurge Prohibited noxious weed California: leafy spurge A list (noxious weeds) Colorado: leafy spurge B list (noxious weeds) Connecticut: leafy spurge Invasive, banned Hawaii: leafy spurge Noxious weed Idaho: leafy spurge Noxious weed Iowa: leafy spurge Primary noxious weed Kansas: leafy spurge Noxious weed Massachusetts: leafy spurge, wolf's milk Prohibited Minnesota: leafy spurge Prohibited noxious weed Montana: leafy spurge Category 1 noxious weed Nebraska:leafy spurge Noxious

(1)Kaufman, W. 2007. Invasive plants: a guide to identification and the impacts and control of common North American species. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA. (2)http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=EUES [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

4.01

(1)An annual herb with a smooth, hollow stem, deep taproot, and erect growth habit to 1 m (3 ft.).

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

4.02

(1)No evidence of allelopathy mentioned among impacts of plant

(1)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/euphorbia_cyathophora.htm [Accessed 01 May 2009]

4.03

(1)An annual herb with a smooth, hollow stem, deep taproot, and erect growth habit to 1 m (3 ft.).

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

4.04

(1)Appendix 1: List of assorted fodder - grasses vegetable crop residues twigs shrubs creepers and tree foliage...Euphorbia cyathophora…3 = sometimes used (2)Leaves are also given to cattle to cure constipation.

(1)Boodoo, A. A., R. Ramjee, B. Hulman, F. Dolberg and J. B. Rowe. 1990. Evaluation of the basal forage diet of village cows. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 2, Number 1, February 1990. (2)http://www.ntfp.org/index.php?go=product&iid=198 [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

4.05

Toxic to humans [see 4.07] but apparently palatable to cattle, at least in some circumstances [see 4.04], but toxicity to animals unknown

4.06

(1)A virus commonly present in commercially grown Euphorbia pulcherrima was transmitted mechanically and by grafting to E. cyathophora and several other euphorbiaciaceous species and was tentatively designated poinsettia mosaic virus (PMV). No hosts were found except Euphorbia spp. and these were relatively insusceptible. [apparently not an important or particularly virulent host of poinsettias] (2)A host of Thanatephorus cucumeris [but no mention of whether it is an important alternate host] (3)host of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. poinsettiicola (Patel et al. 1951) Vauterin et al. 1995

(1)Fulton, R. W. and J. L. Fulton. 1980. Characterization of a tymo-like virus common in poinsettia. Phytopathology 70: 321-324. (2)McMillan Jr., R. T., M. Borek and W. R. Graves. 1997. Web Blight of Dwarf Hawaiian Snowbush. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 110: 370. (3)http://www.ncppb.com/furtherinfo.cfm?ncppb_no=3948 [Accessed 01 Ma 2009]

4.07

(1)The latex produces vomiting and diarrhea. In sever cases, dehydration and delirium may lead to death. Consumption of the leaf and latex have caused the death of a child. (2)Eating any of its parts can cause vomiting, diarrhea, shock, and even death. In addition, its milky sap can irritate the skin.

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL. (2)McMullen, C. K. and G. Prance. 1999. Flowering Plants of the Galápagos. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.

4.08

[although this plant may form dense stands in certain situations, it is an annual herb that does not accumulate a lot of biomass, no indication that this plant increase fire risk] (1)Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cyathophora Painted Spurge Native of tropical America. An annual, erect herb, flowering most of the year. It is naturalized on coastal sands (Harden, 1990, p.425). It can form dense thickets up to 1.5 metres high (Cribb and Cribb, 1985, p.123) inhibiting native regeneration. (2)An annual herb with a smooth, hollow stem, deep taproot, and erect growth habit to 1 m (3 ft.).

(1)Erskine, A., L. King and M. Delaney. 2002. Vegetation Management Plan Seven Mile Beach. Environmental Training and Employment (Northern Rivers) Inc. Lismore, Australia. (2)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

4.09

(1)Well-drained soils in sunny places are preferred. (2)Sun Exposure: Full Sun (3)Light Requirement: Sun

(1)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, OR. (2)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/641/ [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (3)http://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=eucy [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

4.10

(1)Soil pH requirements: 6.1 to 6.5 (mildly acidic) 6.6 to 7.5 (neutral) 7.6 to 7.8 (mildly alkaline) (2)Soil Description: Sandy, Sandy Loam, Medium Loam, Clay Loam

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/641/ [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (2)http://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=eucy [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

4.11

(1)An annual herb with a smooth, hollow stem, deep taproot, and erect growth habit to 1 m (3 ft.).

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

4.12

(1)Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cyathophora Painted Spurge Native of tropical America. An annual, erect herb, flowering most of the year. It is naturalized on coastal sands (Harden, 1990, p.425). It can form dense thickets up to 1.5 metres high (Cribb and Cribb, 1985, p.123) inhibiting native regeneration.

(1)Erskine, A., L. King and M. Delaney. 2002. Vegetation Management Plan Seven Mile Beach. Environmental Training and Employment (Northern Rivers) Inc. Lismore, Australia.

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

5.02

(1)Euphorbiaceae

(1)http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=28060
&print_version=PRT&source=to_print [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

5.03

(1)Euphorbiaceae

(1)http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=28060
&print_version=PRT&source=to_print [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

5.04

(1)An annual herb with a smooth, hollow stem, deep taproot, and erect growth habit to 1 m (3 ft.). [with taproot, but not a perennial plant]

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

6.02

(1)Propagate by seeds

(1)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)Abstract: Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) represents a non-native, invasive weed that dominates many regions across North America. While many research efforts are aimed at controlling the growth and spread of this plant, relatively little is known about its breeding system. This study provides evidence that leafy spurge is self-compatible, with selfed plants producing roughly half as many seeds as outcrossed plants. Unpollinated flowers failed to set seed and thus preliminary tests for apomixis were negative. However, microscopic examination of pollinated flowers revealed that pollen tubes did not appear to enter ovules in either selfed or outcrossed flowers. Therefore, leafy spurge exhibits structural evidence that suggests pseudogamy may play a role in the reproductive strategies of this invasive weed. [unknown for E. cyathophora, but related species are self-compatible]

(1)Selbo, S. M. and Jeffrey S. Carmichael. 1999. Reproductive biology of leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.): breeding system analysis. Can. J. Bot. 77(11): 1684–1688

6.05

(1)The abundant nectar is gathered by bees and produces an acrid, unpleasant honey. (2)Most euphorbs easily attract pollinators (mostly flies) with the nectar secreted by the extrastaminal disc or glands. [family description...description of E. cyathophora does not suggest specialization]

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

6.06

(1)Propagate by seeds

(1)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

6.07

(1)An annual herb with a smooth, hollow stem, deep taproot, and erect growth habit to 1 m (3 ft.).

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

7.01

[distribution along roadsides suggest seeds are either being dispersed inadvertently along roads by vehicles or in soil (1)Common introduced weed on road verge (2)This plant is most common in disturbed areas and along roadsides.

(1)AttorneyGeneral’s Department. 2008. Rumah BaruFreight and Passenger Facilities, Cocos (Keeling) Islands Environmental Management Plan. http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/publications/pubs/turtles-cocos-keeling-islands-emp.pdf [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (2)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

7.02

(1)It is often grown as a border plant in gardens or in cemeteries, particularly in areas of poor soil where few other ornamental species can survive. It is perhaps more commonly found as a weed.

(1)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical ornamentals: a guide. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

7.03

(1)Dispersal mechanism indicates that seed is unlikely to contaminate grape bunches. [no evidence of produce contamination]

(1)Biosecurity Australia. 2005. Final Report for the Import Risk Analysis for Table Grapes from Chile. Biosecurity Australia, Canberra, Australia.

7.04

(1)Fruit. Dehiscent, of mericarps or a capsule (3-lobed, subglobose, schizocarpic), non-fleshy, 3–4 mm long, 4–6 mm wide. (2)Annual herb to 70 cm high, flowering most of the year; fruit a capsule 3-4 mm long x 5-6 mm wide containing numerous round seeds to 3 mm long. Seed not wind dispersed. Prefers coastal sands. Native to tropical Americas, now widespread in coastal Australia (AVH, 2005; Harden, 1990; 1: 425; Lamp & Collet 1989; Lazarides & Hince, 1993) [short distance dispersal by ejection or gravity, but not by wind]

(1)http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/17342 [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (2)Biosecurity Australia. 2005. Final Report for the Import Risk Analysis for Table Grapes from Chile. Biosecurity Australia, Canberra, Australia.

7.05

[Distribution suggests seeds could be water-dispersed, but direct confirmation is lacking ] (1)Habitat. Amongst tall trees, medium trees, pindan (in Canarium australianum dominated vine thicket; in Eucalyptus gomphocephala tall woodland; with Atriplex, Euphorbia, grasses and thistles); occurring on the coast; in rocky or stony soil, sand, loam (calcareous sand and rocky soil); occupying steep valleys; edges of damp zone beside pool; coastal; growing on wasteland, in disturbed natural vegetation, on bare areas (2)naturalized in the Palau group of the Caroline Islands, in Hawaii known only from raised coralline plains at sea level, Barber's Point, Oahu. (3)In Fiji, an abundantly naturalized weed occurring from near sea level to about 100 m in clearings, along roadsides and trails, and in coconut plantations and canefields; it is often abundant in coastal areas, fre

(1)http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/17342 [Accessed 30 Apr 2009] (2)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (3)Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2.

7.06

(1)Fruit: The 3-lobed seed capsule contains 3 gray-brown, 3 mm (0.1 in) mottled, rough seeds. [not fleshy-fruited]

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

7.07

(1)Fruit: The 3-lobed seed capsule contains 3 gray-brown, 3 mm (0.1 in) mottled, rough seeds. [no means of external attachment]

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

7.08

(1)Fruit: The 3-lobed seed capsule contains 3 gray-brown, 3 mm (0.1 in) mottled, rough seeds. [not fleshy-fruited; unlikely fruit/seeds would be ingested]

(1)Nellis, D. W. 1997. Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc., Sarasota, FL.

8.01

(1)Abstract: Soil seed collected from two apparently natural and two disturbed (weedy) communities on Heron Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, contained nine species of easily germinable seed. Seed of the weed Conyza sumatrense was found in each of the four communities, having mean seed numbers ranging from 70 +- 153 seeds m-2 to 14,924 +- 11,152 seeds m-2. Euphorbia cyathophora was less common and found only in disturbed sites with a mean density in those sites of 832 +- 426 seeds m-2. Because of their capacity to build up seed banks in a short time, weeds may pose a threat to the native vegetation of Heron Island. [potentially reaches densities over >1000 m-2]

(1)Rogers, R. W. 2000. Weeds in the germinable seed populations from the Heron Island National Park, Great Barrier Reef. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland Volume 109: 131-134.

8.02

(1)storage Behaviour: Orthodox Storage Conditions: Long-term storage under IPGRI preferred conditions at RBG Kew, WP (germination <75%) [evidence from field conditions lacking]

(1) Liu, K., Eastwood, R.J., Flynn, S., Turner, R.M., and Stuppy, W.H. 2008. Seed Information Database (release 7.1, May 2008) http://www.kew.org/data/sid

8.03

(1)Appendix 3. Summary of recommended weed control methods…Chemical Control...Glyphosate (360) 1:100 with water or Amicide 500 (2,4-D) 1:300 with water or Grazon DS.

(1)http://www.nailsma.org.au/downloads/Appendices%202-6.pdf [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

8.04

(1)Handpulling and chipping effective. [manual methods effective at controlling plant]

(1)http://www.nailsma.org.au/downloads/Appendices%202-6.pdf [Accessed 30 Apr 2009]

8.05

Unknown