Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Curcuma longa (C. domestica) ; turmeric

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

n

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

1

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

y

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

2

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-8

Source

Notes

1.01

http://www.herbaladvisor.com/herbs/xq/asp/Herbid.216/qx/herbdetail.htm

More than 3,000 years ago, Indian healers used turmeric. It has been is cultivated throughout southern and eastern Asia, propagated by cuttings from the root

1.02

no evidence

1.03

no evidence

2.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?12676 (14 March 2002)

Native: Asia-Tropical: India [probably native]

2.02

2.03

(1)USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?12676 (14 March 2002) (2)http://gingers.50megs.com/Curcuma2/Notes.htm

(1)Native: Asia-Tropical: India [probably native] (2)Grows in USDA zones 7B to 11

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?12676 (14 March 2002)

Native: Asia-Tropical: India [probably native]

2.05

(1) Gollifer, D. E. (1972) The introduction of spice crops into the British Solomon Islands. Proceedings of the Conference on Spices, 10th-14th April, 1972., 1973, pp.97-104, 15 ref.
(2) Cecilio Filho, A. B.; Souza, R. J. de; Braz, L. T.; Tavares, M.(2000) Turmeric: plant with medicinal and spice properties and other potential uses. [FT: Cúrcuma: planta medicinal, condimentar e de outros usos potenciais.] Ciência Rural, 2000, Vol.30, No.1, pp.171-177, 44 ref.
(3) Sabur, S. A.; Rahman Molla, A. (1993) Trend, variability and relative profitability of spices in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1993, Vol.16, No.1, pp.1-15, 10 ref.
(4) Aoi, K. (1992) The characteristics and cultivation methods of the medicinal plant Curcuma domestic, Agriculture and Horticulture, 1992, Vol.67, No.3, pp.401-406

(1) British Solomon Islands (2) Brazil (3) Bangladesh (4) Japan, Indonesia

3.01

no evidence

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

no evidence

3.05

no evidence

4.01

smooth

4.02

Fujii, Y.; Furukawa, M.; Hayakawa, Y.; Sugahara, K.; Shibuya, T. (1991) Survey of Japanese medicinal plants for the detection of allelopathic properties. Weed Research (Tokyo), 1991, Vol.36, No.1, pp.36-42, 12 ref.

AB: Plants were screened using lettuce seed and Fusarium oxysporum germination and growth bioassays. Plants with allelopathic properties occurred more frequently in medicinal plants than in common crops and weeds. The strongest activity which was observed in Pulsatilla cernua, Clematis paniculata, Inula helenium, Thymus vulgaris, Ammi visnaga, Laurus nobilis, was manifested by both plant growth inhibition and fungicidal properties. Water extracts of Allium tuberosum and garlic (Allium sativa ) and methanol extracts of Glycyrrhiza glabra and Curcuma longa displayed a strong anti-fungal activity, but did not affect plant growth. Phytolacca americana, Cinnamomum sieboldii, and Mentha piperita exhibited a strong plant seed germination and seedling growth inhibition, but had no effect on fungi.

4.03

no evidence

4.04

no evidence

4.05

AB: The effects of turmeric on concentrations of blood and liver lipid peroxides was examined in female Swiss mice (17 plus or minus 2 weeks old, at experiment start). A control group (n=20) was fed on a standard laboratory diet and the treatment group (n=20) received, in their food, hydro-alcoholic extract of turmeric 4 mg/kg body weight daily, equivalent to 0.4 mg/kg body weight daily of curcumin. The effects of the treatment were examined weekly by estimating food intake, body weight and muscular and central nervous system function (evaluating performance of mice subjected to string and T-maze tests). After 4 weeks of treatment, mice were sacrificed and blood and liver samples removed for estimation of lipid peroxidation (estimating malondialdehyde content by the thiobarbituric acid method). Turmeric did not cause any toxic effects on the above physiological, behavioural and biochemical parameters. However, results show a decrease in the concentration of plasma and liver lipid peroxides.

4.06

Ghorpade, S. A.; Jadhav, S. S.; Ajri, D. S. (1983) Survey of rhizome fly on turmeric and ginger in Maharashtra. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 1983, Vol.8, No.3, pp.292-293, 1 ref.

AB: Details are given of a survey in 1978-80 in Maharashtra, India, to determine the incidence of Mimegralla coeruleifrons (Macq.) on turmeric and ginger. The results indicated that this species is an important pest of these plants, is endemic in Sangli and Satara districts and may become a serious problem especially in Parbhani, Bhir, Nanded and Solapur districts, where it was recorded for the first time. Infestation tended to be patchy, and less damage was caused in light, well-drained soils. Crop losses averaged 25.35 %% for turmeric and 30.62% for ginger.

4.07

no evidence

4.08

a lush herbaceous plant

4.09

(1)Aoi, K. (1992) The characteristics and cultivation methods of the medicinal plant Curcuma domestic, Agriculture and Horticulture, 1992, Vol.67, No.3, pp.401-406 (2)http://gingers.50megs.com/Curcuma2/Notes.htm

(1)The morphology of lines of C. domestica [C. longa ] from Tanegashima, (Japan), Taiwan, Indonesia and Java were compared, and C. domestica was also compared with C. zedoaria. In the lines from Tanegashima and Indonesia, there were correlations between the leaf number and the weights of above- or below-ground parts or weight of the main tuber. In the same 2 lines, flooding increased the tuber yield/plant and application of 9 mm water/day gave higher yields than 6 mm/day. Fresh root yields with 9 mm water/day were 785 g/plant in the Tanegashima line and 547 g in the Indonesian line. Shading to 50% markedly increased the tuber yield of the Tanegashima line but slightly decreased that of the Indonesian line; shading to 75% markedly decreased yields. [It can yield under 75% shading] (2)partial shade to full sun

4.1

http://www.aphorti.com/turmerics.htm

Soil Condition Loamy, sandy, clay, acidic, neutral

4.11

erect

4.12

no evidence

5.01

terrestrial herb

5.02

Zingiberaceae

5.03

no evidence

5.04

Yothasiri, A.; Somwong, T.; Tubngon, S.; Kasirawat, T. (1997) Effect of types and sizes of seed rhizomes on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Kasetsart Journal, Natural Sciences, 1997, Vol.31, No.1, pp.10-19, 3 ref.

AB: The effects of type and size of seed rhizome on growth and yield of C. longa were studied at Kaohinson Research Station, Panomsarakam district, Thailand in 1994-95. Seed rhizomes giving the highest yield per unit area were the whole mother rhizomes (3540 kg/rai) followed by the primary rhizomes with 5-6 internodes (2841 kg/rai) and the half-cut mother rhizomes (2840 kg/rai). Whole mother rhizomes produced the most rapid growth and development of plants. The primary, secondary and tertiary rhizomes with 3-4 internodes did not differ from one another in terms of growth and yield. [6.25 rai = 1 ha]. [seed rhizome can act as propagule]

6.01

no evidence

6.02

(1)Nambiar, M. C.; Pillai, P. K. T.; Sarma, Y. N. (1982) Seedling propagation in turmeric (Curcuma aromatica Salisb). Journal of Plantation Crops, 1982, Vol.10, No.2, pp.81-85. (2) Lad, S. K. 1993. A case of seed-setting in cultivated turmeric types (Curcuma longa Linn.). Journal of Soils and Crops. 3: 78-79.

[usually considered sterile] (1) "Although flowering occurred in the triploid species C. longa, fruit set was not observed, microsporogenesis was irregular and pollen fertility ranged from 45.74 to 48.48%. " (2)Seed setting is rare. Ca-92/1 produced 27 seeds/plant, whereas Ca-17-1 only 4-5 seeds/plant.

6.03

Nazeem, P. A.; Rema Menon; Valsala, P. A. 1993. Blossom biological and hybridisation studies in turmeric, Curcuma spp. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 16:106-109.

no evidence

6.04

Nazeem, P. A.; Rema Menon; Valsala, P. A. 1993. Blossom biological and hybridisation studies in turmeric, Curcuma spp. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 16:106-109.

No seed setting occurred after selfing, suggesting self-incompatibility.

6.05

Nambiar, M. C.; Pillai, P. K. T.; Sarma, Y. N. (1982) Seedling propagation in turmeric (Curcuma aromatica Salisb). Journal of Plantation Crops, 1982, Vol.10, No.2, pp.81-85, 6 ref.

AB: "Although flowering occurred in the triploid species C. longa, fruit set was not observed, microsporogenesis was irregular and pollen fertility ranged from 45.74 to 48.48%. "

6.06

Yothasiri, A.; Somwong, T.; Tubngon, S.; Kasirawat, T. (1997) Effect of types and sizes of seed rhizomes on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Kasetsart Journal, Natural Sciences, 1997, Vol.31, No.1, pp.10-19, 3 ref.

AB: The effects of type and size of seed rhizome on growth and yield of C. longa were studied at Kaohinson Research Station, Panomsarakam district, Thailand in 1994-95. Seed rhizomes giving the highest yield per unit area were the whole mother rhizomes (3540 kg/rai) followed by the primary rhizomes with 5-6 internodes (2841 kg/rai) and the half-cut mother rhizomes (2840 kg/rai). Whole mother rhizomes produced the most rapid growth and development of plants. The primary, secondary and tertiary rhizomes with 3-4 internodes did not differ from one another in terms of growth and yield. [6.25 rai = 1 ha]. [seed rhizome can act as propagule]

6.07

Yothasiri, A.; Somwong, T.; Tubngon, S.; Kasirawat, T. (1997) Effect of types and sizes of seed rhizomes on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Kasetsart Journal, Natural Sciences, 1997, Vol.31, No.1, pp.10-19, 3 ref.

[via rhizome, acting as propagule]

7.01

no evidence

7.02

a spice crop

7.03

rhizome is the product, not contaminant

7.04

rhizome is the propagule

7.05

rhizome is the propagule

7.06

rhizome is the propagule

7.07

no evidence

7.08

no evidence

8.01

(1)Nambiar, M. C.; Pillai, P. K. T.; Sarma, Y. N. (1982) Seedling propagation in turmeric (Curcuma aromatica Salisb). Journal of Plantation Crops, 1982, Vol.10, No.2, pp.81-85. (2) Lad, S. K. 1993. A case of seed-setting in cultivated turmeric types (Curcuma longa Linn.). Journal of Soils and Crops. 3: 78-79.

[usually considered sterile] (1) "Although flowering occurred in the triploid species C. longa, fruit set was not observed, microsporogenesis was irregular and pollen fertility ranged from 45.74 to 48.48%. " (2)Seed setting is rare. Ca-92/1 produced 27 seeds/plant, whereas Ca-17-1 only 4-5 seeds/plant.

8.02

Venkatesha, J.; Vanamala, K. R.; Khan, M. M. (1997) Effect of method of storage on the viability of seed rhizome in turmeric. Current Research - University of Agricultural Sciences (Bangalore), 1997, Vol.26, No.6/7, pp.114-115, 3 ref.

AB: Studies were carried out at the Division of Horticulture, Bangalore, India, in 1993, to determine the most effective and economical storage method of Curcuma domestica [C. longa ] seed rhizomes. Rhizomes were stored in pits, stored in the cold (10 deg C) or in 100 or 200 gauge polythene bags with 0, 2, 3 or 4% ventilation, were assessed for sprouting, rotting and rooting during storage, and recovery and sprouting after planting in the field. All the studied characters varied significantly between storage treatments. Rhizomes stored at 10 deg , unlike all other treatments, did not root, rot or sprout during storage. However, these rhizomes exhibited low sprouting (33.05%) in the field. The most effective treatment was storage in 100 gauge polythene bags with 3% ventilation, since a high percentage (98.88%) of healthy rhizomes was recovered which exhibited 91.9% sprouting in the field. During storage, sprouting and rooting of rhizomes was <20%, while no rotting was observed in this treatment.

8.03

no evidence

8.04

can regenerate from rhizome

8.05

no evidence