Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

3-5

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

n

1

Total score:

21

Notes

2.01

(1)"Geographic distribution Native : Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Tonga, Vanuatu, Vietnan. Exotic : Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, China, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, India, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Martinique, Mauritania, Montserrat, Myanmar, Netherlands Antilles, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United States of America, Virgin Islands (US), Zanzibar" (2)"Malaysia, southern Asia, Oceania and Australia"

(1)International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (2)Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Webpage: Least Wanted: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas Fact Sheets. Accessed 2008. http://www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact.htm

2.02

Native range well known

2.03

"Biophysical limits Altitude: 0-1,400 m, Mean annual temperature: 10-35 deg. C, Mean annual rainfall: 200-3 500 mm Soil type: Soils are invariably well-drained and rather coarse textured, rincipally sands and sand loams."

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

2.04

(1)"Australian pine is established in the Hawaiian islands, coastal Florida, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and many Caribbean islands." (2)"Australian Pines were observed by botanists in Mexico prior to 1852. They were introduced into Barbados about 1870, into Hawaii before 1895, and were naturalized in the West Indies and Florida before 1920"

(1)Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Webpage: Least Wanted: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas Fact Sheets. Accessed 2008. http://www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact.htm(2)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

2.05

"Because of its tenacious resistance to salinity and desiccation, several third world countries, including Senegal, China, and Egypt, employ C. equisetifolia in forestation projects."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

3.01

"No other species in the family extends farther beyond Australia than this … In the Everglades, C. equisetifolia (the only naturalized species in the U.S.) flowers twice a year beginning 3 to 5 years after germination."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

3.02

No, although it "Grows vigorously on barren, polluted sites and thrives in deep sandy soils. Colonizes sterile tin tailings." It's role as a disturbance weed is included in its score as an environmental weed

nternational Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

3.03

No evidence

3.04

(1) "Casuarina equisetifolia and Melaleuca quinquenervia have become established in South Florida … The authors studied the effects of Melaleuca and Casuarina on the 3 sympatric rodents (Peromyscus gossypinus, Sigmodon hispidus and Oryzomys palustris ) found in the Everglades. Casuarina habitats supported fewer rodents than either cocoplum or Melaleuca habitats. Rodents captured on the combination Casuarina -cocoplum head showed a clear preference for the cocoplum half." (2)"Casuarina equisetifolia is probably the most invasive species in south Florida; it freely selfseeds in disturbed areas, and once established, may inhibit the growth of native species … The presence of Casuarina stands in Florida usurps nesting places in the only remaining nesting areas in the United States for the American crocodile, and in one of the most productive nesting areas remaining for loggerhead and green sea turtles. Terrestrial fauna are not exempt from threats posed by the spread of Casuarina. Areas inhabited by the Gopher Tortoise are threatened with invasion by Casuarina, which would result in the departure of the tortoise."

(1)Mazzotti, F.J., W. Ostrenko and A.T. Smith. 1981. Effects of the exotic plants Melaleuca quinquenervia and Casuarina equisetifolia on small mammal populations in the eastern Florida Everglades. Florida Scientist 44(2): 65-71(2)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

3.05

"All 3 species of sheoak (C. equisetifolia, C. glauca and C. cunninghamiana) are listed as noxious weeds (prohibited aquatic plants, Class 1) in Florida"

USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

4.01

"Trunk straight, cylindrical, usually branchless for up to 10 m"

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

4.02

(1)"A study conducted under the 14 year old plantations of Casuarina equisetifolia reveals the reduction of understory vegetation in comparison to the adjoining open areas … allelopathy was observed to play a significatnt role un regulating the understory vegetation dynamics in C. equisetifolia stands" (2)"It is concluded from observation by experts that Casuarinas' inhibition of any undergrowth is the result of an aggressive and dense colonization habit and possibly to the production of phytotoxic exudations"

(1)Batish, D.R. and H.P. Singh. 1998. Role of Allelopathy in Regulating the Understory Vegetation of Casuarina equisetifolia. Pages 317-324. in Environmental Forest Science Edited by Sassa, K. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands (2)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

4.03

Not parasitic

USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service Staff. 2008. Parasitic Plant Genera List

4.04

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "While cattle readily eat the sprouts in Australia, they are recognized as high in tannin, astringent, and constipating, and are used for hardship fare only. It is now known that tannin interferes with digestive system utilization of protein, results in weight deficits, and is carcinogenic."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

4.05

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "While cattle readily eat the sprouts in Australia, they are recognized as high in tannin, astringent, and constipating, and are used for hardship fare only. It is now known that tannin interferes with digestive system utilization of protein, results in weight deficits, and is carcinogenic."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

4.06

"C. equisetifolia is only rarely attacked by diseases and pests, unless if grown under unfavourable conditions. Infected trees exhibit symptoms of foliar wilt and cracking of the bark where blisters develop, enclosing a black, powdery mass of spores. Bacterial wilt caused by Pseudumonas solanacearum, characterized by yellowing of the foliage followed by wilting and death, has been reported in India and China. Pruning may allow infection of fungal pathogens, especially Trichosporium vesiculosum and Formes lucidus. As in other actinorhizal plants, endomycorrhizal (VAM) infection occurs easily. Insect pests include casuarina tussock moth, Lymantria xylina, white-spotted long-horn beetle, Anoplophora macularia, and cotton locust, Chondracis rosea. Ants attack fresh seeds. The wood borers Zeuzera spp. And Hypsiptla robusta are known to cause severe damage to the wood."

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

4.07

(1)"Casuarina equisetifolia and Casuarina lepidipholia, commonly known as Australian pine, pollinate in Miami Beach during January, February, March, and April. The height of the pollinating season for the past two years has been in April. 2. 2. The pollen of Casuarina is abundant, wind borne, and capable of producing hay fever or asthma in allergic persons" (2)In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "Apart from the hazards that Casuarina presents to its habitat and to other plants and animals, it also poses a problem to humans because it is a source of respiratory irritation. Casuarina pollen can cause allergic reactions symptomized by eye irritation, runny-nose, and hoarseness or sore throat"

(1)Zivitz, N. 2004. Allergy to Australian pine A report of three cases. Journal of Allergy 13(3): 314-316 (2)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

4.08

"Fuel: The highly regarded wood ignites readily even when green, and ashes retain heat for long periods. It has been called ‘the best firewood in the world’ and also produces high-quality harcoal. Calorific value of the wood is 5000 kcal/kg and that of the charcoal exceeds 7 000 kcal/kg. It has been used for both domestic and industrial fuel such as for railroad locomotives."

International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp

4.09

No evidence

4.10

"It shows wide latitude in it's soil demands and ranges from dry, sandy beach ridges to wet lake margins, but it withstands inundation for short periods only. In southeastern Florida, the species is particularly prevalent on alkaline, lime stone-derived soils. It is tolerant of very saline conditions but grows best in slightly acid sandy soils. It reaches maximum development in slightly depressional topography where adequate moisture is nearly always available. Although it doesn't do well in areas of prolonged flooding, it is extremely resistant to salt spray and grows rapidly during hot weather"

Invasive Species Specialist Group. Webpage: The Global Invasive Species Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/

4.11

Not a vine or woody liana

4.12

"Dense thickets of Australian pine displace native dune and beach vegetation, including mangroves and many other resident, beach-adapted species. "

Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Webpage: Least Wanted: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas Fact Sheets. Accessed 2008. http://www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact.htm

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Not Poaceae

5.03

"Because its roots are capable of producing nitrogen through microbial associations, Australian pine can colonize nutrient-poor soils."

Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Webpage: Least Wanted: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas Fact Sheets. Accessed 2008. http://www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact.htm

5.04

Not a geophyte

6.01

"Native Range Australia and into Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia; widely cultivated and naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions."

Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project. Webpage: Plant Threats to Pacific Ecosystems. Accessed 2008. http://www.hear.org/pier/scientificnames/index.html

6.02

"In the Everglades, C. equisetifolia (the only naturalized species in the U.S.) flowers twice a year beginning 3 to 5 years after germination. It flowers February through April and September through October, with fruits ripening in June and December. Seeds remain fertile for a few months to a year and germinate under conditions of adequate moisture and porous soil in 4-8 days. Young seedlings are extremely sensitive to drought, flood, and fire (Wodehouse 1972). A single 4 or 5 year old tree is able to produce thousands of seeds that are borne by winds to new colonization sites."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

6.03

(1)"The most common Casuarinas established in southern and central Florida include three species: Casuarina equisetifolia L. (C. litorea, L.), C. cunninghamiana Miq., and C. glauca Sieb. Ex Spreng. (C.lepidophloia, C. cristata). The presence of hybrids is a cause of uncertainty in readily distinguishing these species at a distance. Natural hybridization and differences in nomenclature make American literature on the subject confusing" (2)"Casuarina cunninghamiana Miq. River sheoak, Casuarina equisetifolia L. Australian-pine Casuarina glauca Seiber gray sheoak These species hybridize with each other "

(1)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy (2)USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

6.04

Unknown

6.05

"Casuarinaceae … Flowers small and inconspicous, wind-pollinated"

Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI

6.06

"Casuarina equisetifolia can reproduce sexually via seed as well as vegetatively through the sprouting of new clonal trunks from existing rootstock."

Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce. Webpage: the Indian River Lagoon Species Inventory. Accessed 2008. http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/index.htm

6.07

"In the Everglades, C. equisetifolia (the only naturalized species in the U.S.) flowers twice a year beginning 3 to 5 years after germination."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

7.01

Because this species readily colonizes disturbed habitats and the seeds are small "< 0.1 g, no endosperm Wind (dispersal)" Accidental spread is likely

Bayman, P., P. Angulo-Sandoval, Z. Baez-Ortiz and J.D. Lodge. 1998. Distribution and dispersal of Xylaria endophytes in two tree species in Puerto Rico. Mycol. Res. 102 (8): 944–948

7.02

(1)"Australian pine was introduced to Florida in the late 1800's and planted widely for the purposes of ditch and canal stabilization, shade and lumber." (2)"Because of its tenacious resistance to salinity and desiccation, several third world countries, including Senegal, China, and Egypt, employ C. equisetifolia in forestation projects."

(1)Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Webpage: Least Wanted: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas Fact Sheets. Accessed 2008. http://www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact.htm (2)Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy

7.04

"Australian pine is capable of flowering year- round and can produce tremendous numbers of small, winged seeds which are dispersed by wind."

Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group. Webpage: Least Wanted: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas Fact Sheets. Accessed 2008. http://www.nps.gov/plants/ALIEN/fact.htm

7.05

"...seeds can be water-dispersed"

Invasive Species Specialist Group. Webpage: The Global Invasive Species Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/

7.06

No based on fruit morphology, see the following (1)"Casuarinaceae .. Fruit a 1-seeded, flattened apically winged nut, the nuts arranged in ovoid or cylindrical, somewhat woody cones." (2)Seeds are eaten by birds but likely they are acting as predators, not dispersers (In regards to an unnamed Casuarina spp.) "Glossy Black-Cockatoos love Casuarina seeds. Note the size and strength of the bill, enabling them to crack these hard seeds"

(1)Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI (2)Dahlem, C. and M. Dahlem. Website: Birds of Australia. Accessed 2008. http://www.mdahlem.net/birds/ozbirds.php

7.07

No hooks or barbs on fruit

8.01

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally. "It produces thousands of wind born seeds per plant and reproduces prodigiously via coppicing to produce close, impenetrable stands."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy (2)Webpage: Plants for A Future: Edible, Medicinal ans Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Accessed 2008. http://www.pfaf.org/index.php

8.02

(1)"Germplasm Management Storage behaviour is orthodox. Viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 3 deg. C with 5-9% mc. There are about 26000 seeds/kg but viability is often low, even for fresh seed, averaging 50%." (2)"Elfers (1988) notes that seeds remain fertile for a few months to a year and germinate under conditions of adequate moisture and porous soil in 4-8 days."

(1)International Center for Research in Agroforestry. Website: AgroForestryTree Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (2)Invasive Species Specialist Group. Webpage: The Global Invasive Species Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/

8.03

"For heavier infestations, application of a systemic type herbicide to bark, cut stumps, or foliage is likely to be the most effective management tool. An industry-wide survey instituted by the US Exotic Pest Plant Council of current eradication methods employed against Casuarina disclosed that a 2% mixture of Garlon 4 in diesel oil applied using the basal bark method or the hack-and-squirt method is most commonly used. Another herbicide frequently used is Garlon 3A by Dow."

Invasive Species Specialist Group. Webpage: The Global Invasive Species Database. Accessed 2008. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/

8.04

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia in general "Sheoak less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter can sucker following fire. Trees larger than this usually die"

USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

8.05

In regards to C. cunninghamiana, C. glauca and C. equisetifolia generally "Casuarina has no natural enemies in its North American distribution and has a phenomenal growth rate that outpaces most other plants. These characteristics explain Casuarina's ability to outcompete all native endemics."

Elfers, S.C. 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Casuarina equisetifolia. The Nature Conservancy