Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Cassia fistula


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: Low risk, score: 3 (low risk based on second screen)


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.

Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Cassia fistula (golden shower tree)

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

y

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

3

Supporting data:

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

see 3.01

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Review of natural distribution
C. fistula is native to Myanmar, Sri Lanka and most of India (Champion and Seth, 1968; Troup and Joshi, 1983); it is also found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and southern China.
It is a very widespread forest tree in India, usually occurring in deciduous forest throughout and ascending to 1220 m in the sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalayas, from the Indus eastwards to Assam; it is common throughout the Gangetic Valley, central India, Deccan and South India. In Maharashtra State, it occurs as a scattered tree in the Deccan and Konkan forests, ascending to 1130 m in the Khandesh Akrani. It is particularly abundant in the Bhabar tracts on the fringes of the Himalayas.
Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 30°N to 10°S
Vegetation types: deciduous forests; moist forests; dry forests; coniferous forests
List of countries with natural populations:
Asia: India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand

2.02

2.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

It is a very widespread forest tree in India, usually occurring in deciduous forest throughout and ascending to 1220 m in the sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalayas, from the Indus eastwards to Assam; it is common throughout the Gangetic Valley, central India, Deccan and South India. In Maharashtra State, it occurs as a scattered tree in the Deccan and Konkan forests, ascending to 1130 m in the Khandesh Akrani. It is particularly abundant in the Bhabar tracts on the fringes of the Himalayas.
Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 30°N to 10°S
Climate
C. fistula is a hardy tree and can withstand a wide range of climatic conditions. Within its native distribution, the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month ranges from 30 to 42.5°C; the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month ranges from 7 to 24°C. Rainfall within its native distribution ranges from 500 to 3000 mm, but C. fistula grows best in areas which have an average annual rainfall within the range 750 to 1900 mm.

2.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Review of natural distribution
C. fistula is native to Myanmar, Sri Lanka and most of India (Champion and Seth, 1968; Troup and Joshi, 1983); it is also found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and southern China.
It is a very widespread forest tree in India, usually occurring in deciduous forest throughout and ascending to 1220 m in the sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalayas, from the Indus eastwards to Assam; it is common throughout the Gangetic Valley, central India, Deccan and South India. In Maharashtra State, it occurs as a scattered tree in the Deccan and Konkan forests, ascending to 1130 m in the Khandesh Akrani. It is particularly abundant in the Bhabar tracts on the fringes of the Himalayas.
Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 30°N to 10°S
Vegetation types: deciduous forests; moist forests; dry forests; coniferous forests
List of countries with natural populations:
Asia: India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand

2.05

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

C. fistula is cultivated as an ornamental or avenue tree throughout the tropical regions of Asia and of Central and South America, and in some tropical African countries.
List of countries where planted
Asia: Bangladesh, China, [India] Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
South America: Argentina

3.01

1)Irvine. Woody Plants of Ghana. Oxford University Press. 2)Long and Lakela. A flora of tropical Florida. Miami Pres 3)Little and Wadsworth. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. 4) Stanley and Ross. Flora of south east Queensland 5)R. Randall's garden thugs

1) Africa (Ghana) -- occurs only in gardens, 2) Florida (persists on abandoned home sites but does not spread. 3)Cultivated and sometimes "locally" naturalized throughout the tropics 4) "possibly naturalized in Queensland 5)environmental concern in Qlnd and NT Australia but no justification available, assumption is that it is naturalized.

3.02

not recognized as a weed

3.03

not recognized as a weed

3.04

1)Randall Garden Thugs 2) Stanley and Ross. Flora of south east Queensland

possibly a problem in parts of Australia but no details available. 2) Flora from same region indicates "possibly naturalized" in Australia; not recognized as a weed

3.05

Note: The weedy "Cassias" have been are now in the genus Senna because of important differences from the "true" Cassias

4.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.02

Joshi, R. K.; Prasad, D.; Nautiyal, R.; Pant, G.; Rawat, M. S. M. (1998) Phytotoxicity of Cassia fistula on Triticum aestivum seedlings. Journal of Hill Research, 1998, Vol.11, No.1, pp.43-48, 13 ref.

In field observations, germination and root and shoot development of Triticum aestivum growing under the canopy of Cassia fistula have been shown to be inhibited. The effect of organic and aqueous extracts of stem bark, leaves and pods of Cassia fistula on seed germination and seedling growth of Triticum aestivum was examined. All the aqueous extracts tested significantly inhibited seed germination and seedling growth of Triticum aestivum , with the inhibitory effect increasing with concentration from 2.5 to 5 to 10%. Bark extracts tended to be more inhibitory than those of leaves and pods. Of the extracts made with organic solvents, the ethyl acetate extracts of all 3 Cassia parts were most inhibitory. These yielded flavanoids, flavonoids and anthraquinones. Bioassays of these groups of chemicals showed that the flavonoids gave maximum inhibition of germination and seedling growth of Triticum aestivum .

4.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree

4.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.;Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1983. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol IV. Leguminosae. Delhi, India; Controller of Publications.

"It is not browsed by domestic animals, and hence may be suitable for revegetating land which has become degraded through overgrazing (Troup and Joshi, 1983),"

4.05

no evidence

4.06

Shelly, T. E. (2000) Flower-feeding affects mating performance in male oriental fruit flies Bactrocera dorsalis.Ecological Entomology, 2000, Vol.25, No.1, pp.109-114, 25 ref.

AA: USDA-APHIS and Hawaiian Evolutionary Biology Program, University of Hawaii, USA.

Males of the oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis are attracted to and feed on flowers of the golden shower blossom Cassia fistula . Flowers of this plant contain methyl eugenol, the metabolites of which apparently function in the synthesis of male sex pheromone. The goal of the study reported here was to determine whether feeding on C. fistula flowers enhanced male mating success. Mating frequencies of unfed (control) and fed (treated) males were compared in trials conducted 0 (same day), 2, 7, or 21 days after treated males were exposed to the flowers. Trials were performed using flowers from three trees of C. fistula to investigate whether the effects of floral feeding were similar among different plants. For all three trees, treated males accounted for a disproportionately large number of matings in trials performed 0, 2, and 7 days after floral feeding by the treated males. For two of the trees, treated males also had a mating advantage 21 days after flower-feeding. Additional tests were conducted to c

4.07

no evidence

4.08

no evidence

4.09

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

C. fistula is a moderate light-demander and will tolerate some shade.
Descriptors
- Tolerates drought; fire; wind; weeds; shade 

4.1

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Soil and physiography
C. fistula will grow on poor and shallow soils. It thrives on granite, sandstone and lateritic soils, and areas with brackish water.
Descriptors
- Soil texture: medium
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid
- Special soil tolerances: shallow
- Soil types: acid soils; granite soils; lateritic soils; sandstone soils; tropical soils

4.11

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree

4.12

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

no evidence

5.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

terrestrial tree

5.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

woody tree

5.03

Pokhriyal, T. C.; Bhandari, H. C. S.; Negi, D. S.; Chaukiyal, S. P.; Gupta, B. B. (1990) Identification of some fast growing leguminous tree species for nitrogen fixation studies. Indian Forester, 1990, Vol.116, No.6, pp.504-507, 8 ref.

Twenty-seven tree species, whose seeds were obtained from the Plant Introduction Unit of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, India, were grown first in sand (to height 10-12 cm), and then in pot culture in soil/farmyard manure (3:1) for 2-3 months. Records were made of nodulation in each species, and healthy plants were selected for determination of the nitrogen fixing activity of their isolated nodules. Sixteen of the species tested (12 Mimosoideae and 4 Papilionoideae) formed nodules which exhibited nitrogen fixing activity; data are tabulated on nodule fresh weight, number and acetylene reduction activity for each. The 16 nitrogen fixing species were Acacia albida, A. benthemii [A. benthamii], A. catechu, A. lenticularis, A. nilotica, Albizia lebbeck [A. lebbek], A. procera, Leucaena leucocephala, Mimosa pudica (field collected), Enterolobium timbouva [E. contortisiliquum], Prosopis cineraria, P. chilensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Derris robusta, Pongamia pinnata and Ouge[i]nia oojeinensis. The remaining n

5.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

Sreerama, R.; Krishnappa, N.; Reddy, T. V.; Reddy, M. A. N. (2000) Effect of pre-sowing treatments on seed germination of ornamental trees. Current Research - University of Agricultural Sciences (Bangalore), 2000, Vol.29, No.7/8, pp.127-128, 3 ref.

"At 21 days after sowing, SAT for 30 minutes recorded the highest C. fistula seed germination (9.33 of 10 seeds). "

6.03

6.04

6.05

(1) Saradhi, P. P.; Ram, H. Y. M. (1981) Some aspects of floral biology of Cassia fistula Linn. (the Indian laburnum). Part I. Current Science, 1981, Vol.50, No.18, pp.802-805, 11 ref.
(2) Murali, K. S. (1993) Differential reproductive success in Cassia fistula in different habitats - a case of pollinator limitation? Current Science, 1993, Vol.65, No.3, pp.270-272 2)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cassia_fistula.html

(1) "Stamens, pollen production, the carpel and flower abscission were studied. Starchy pollen grains were found in C. fistula flowers on the anthers in the inner whorl and lipid-rich pollen grains on the anthers in the outer whorl. Of the many thousand pollen grains produced on average by one flower only 250-350 are used for pollination. It is suggested that some heavy-bodied insects push the pollen into the hollow stigma. "
(2) "Differences in flower success patterns in two habitat types that differed drastically with respect to rainfall, tree density and species composition were studied at Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary, India. Observations on phenological patterns of Cassia fistula and Gmeliina arborea were made from April 1988 to June 1990. Quantitative data on flower-fruit ratio, insect visitation rates, pollen grains per stigma and the number of fruits per tree were recorded. Data were also collected on the number of pollen grains deposited on the stigma after different species of bees visited the flow

6.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

- Ability to sucker; suited for coppicing (but does not naturally spread by vegetative reproduction).

6.07

R. Criley, UH Department of Horticulture, personal communication

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.; Krishnamurthy T, 1993. Minor Forest Products of India. New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH.

C. fistula is widely planted in the tropics as an ornamental and avenue tree. The timber is hard, strong and durable, and although not available on a commercial scale, is used for a wide variety of purposes on a local scale. The roots, bark, seeds, leaves and pulp from ripe pods are used medicinally. In India, the bark is also widely used in tannin industry. The flowers are golden-yellow, and are used in religious ceremonies in India and Bangladesh. The flowers and buds may be eaten (Krishnamurthy, 1993).

7.03

no evidence

7.04

no evidence

7.05

no evidence

7.06

Santharam-V. 1998. Woodpeckers feeding on Cassia pods.Journal-of-the-Bombay-Natural-History-Society. 95 (3): 505-506.

pods fed upon by woodpeckers in native range

7.07

no evidence, large seeds fall to the ground in closed pods. Possibly eaten by rodents or cattle but no evidence. Typically piles of seeds and pods accumulate under the tree.

7.08

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

The seeds are dispersed by various mammals which break open the pods to eat the pulp and scatter the seeds in the process, or eat the seeds which are then disseminated through the faeces.

8.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Fruit an indehiscent pod, 40-60 cm long by 1-2 cm diameter, cylindrical, pendulous and terete, containing 25-100 seeds. The pod develops numerous transverse septa between the seeds. When fresh the pods contain a black pulp which on drying adheres to the septa. (must produce >16 pods/sq m)

8.02

(1) FC; Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1983. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol IV. Leguminosae. Delhi, India; Controller of Publications.
(2) Athaya, C. D.(1985) Ecological studies of some forest tree seeds II. Seed storage and viability. Indian Journal of Forestry, 1985, Vol.8, No.2, pp.137-140, 18 ref.

(1) The seeds germinate during the rainy season, some lying dormant for 2 to 3 rainy seasons (Troup and Joshi, 1983).
(2) "Seeds of 18 species were stored for varying times up to 36 months in open or closed glass-stoppered bottles, with or without cleaning. Seeds of many species (e.g. Acacia catechu, A. leucophloea, Albizia procera, Terminalia arjuna, T. belerica ) had a higher germination percent when kept in the middle layer of the container than when kept in the top or bottom layers. Seeds of A. catechu, Bauhinia variegata, Cassia fistula, Diospyros melanoxylon, Emblica officinalis [Phyllanthus emblica], Mitragyna parvifolia and T. belerica had a higher germination percent when stored after cleaning compared with uncleaned seeds, which sometimes fermented. Seeds of 13 species showed some viability after 1 yr; only 4 species (A. procera, C. fistula, Lagerstroemia parviflora and T. arjuna ) were viable after 3 yr. "

8.03

8.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

- Ability to sucker; suited for coppicing

8.05


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