Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Camelina sativa


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 9.5


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments

Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz Family - Brassicaceae. Common Names(s) - False flax; gold of pleasure. Synonym(s) - Camelina parodii Ibarra & La Porte, Myagrum sativum L. (basionym).

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

-3

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

y

1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y= 1, n=-1

y

1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

0

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

0.5

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

0.5

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

1

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

0.5

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

9.5

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)During the Middle Ages, CS was grown sporadically (Knorzer, 1978; Neuss, 1978; Hjelmquist, 1979). In the beginning of the 20th century up to the 193Os, the crop was grown in France, Belgium, Holland, the Balkan region and Russia in the region from Caucasus to Siberia (Wacker, 1934). During the period 1945-1955, CS was still grown in Europe, e.g. in Poland (Pieczka, 1967; Musnicky et al., 1967). In Sweden, the area with CS in 1951 amounted to 1050 ha (Hammar, 1988). In 1952 the acreage with CS was 1000 ha (Loof, 1961). CS was an economically important crop in the USSR (Gorjunova, 1954; Boev, 1956)...CS is a cruciferous plant. The botanical nomenclature of the genus Camelina Cr. includes numerous species and subspecies (Mirek, 1980). CS as a cultural plant occurs in different forms, such as summer, winter and intermediate form...The physiological differences are mainly related to the growth and development of the plants, winter hardness, etc. (2)The cultivated varieties of C. sativa differ from wild and weedy forms by their non-dehiscent, large and pyriform fruits and by bigger (1.5-2.0 mm long) seed, which contain an appreciable amount (27-31 per cent) of edible oil.

(1)Zubr, J. 1997. Oil-seed crop: Camelina sativa. - Industrial Crops and Products 6: 113-119 (2)Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. 1988. Domestication of plants in the Old World. - Clarendon Press Oxford

1.02

(1)widely naturalized elsewhere

(1)USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl (Accessed 04 May 2010)

1.03

(1)The crop, subsp. Sativa (Mill.) E. Schmid, is closely related to, and interfertile with, a variable aggregate of wild and weedy forms, distributed over Europe and southwest Asia…Closely related to them are early flowering forms, known as subsp. Pilosa (DC.) E. Schmid, which thrive in fields of winter cereals over almost all Europe. These are obviously recently evolved weeds, which spread from east Europe westward, over cultivated lands.

(1)Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. 1988. Domestication of plants in the Old World. - Clarendon Press Oxford

2.01

(1)Geographical range: Native range: C. sativa is native to parts of Asia and Europe, but it is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA-ARS, 2008). Specifically, its native range includes Central Europe, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Temperate Asia (API, 2008). Known introduced range: C. sativa has been introduced into the lower 48 states of continental United States (USA) as well as Alaska, and Canada (USDA-NRCS, 2008a).

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

2.02

(1)Geographical range: Native range: C. sativa is native to parts of Asia and Europe, but it is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA-ARS, 2008). Specifically, its native range includes Central Europe, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Temperate Asia (API, 2008). Known introduced range: C. sativa has been introduced into the lower 48 states of continental United States (USA) as well as Alaska, and Canada (USDA-NRCS, 2008a).

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

2.03

(1)The crop is flexible and can be grown with success under different climatic and soil conditions with the exception of heavy clay-and organic soil. CS is relatively resistant to drought.

(1)Zubr, J. 1997. Oil-seed crop: Camelina sativa. - Industrial Crops and Products 6: 113-119

2.04

(1)Geographical range: Native range: C. sativa is native to parts of Asia and Europe, but it is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA-ARS, 2008). Specifically, its native range includes Central Europe, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Temperate Asia (API, 2008). Known introduced range: C. sativa has been introduced into the lower 48 states of continental United States (USA) as well as Alaska, and Canada (USDA-NRCS, 2008a). [no information on naturalization in tropical regions found]

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

2.05

(1)Geographical range: Native range: C. sativa is native to parts of Asia and Europe, but it is widely naturalized elsewhere (USDA-ARS, 2008). Specifically, its native range includes Central Europe, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Temperate Asia (API, 2008). Known introduced range: C. sativa has been introduced into the lower 48 states of continental United States (USA) as well as Alaska, and Canada (USDA-NRCS, 2008a).

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

3.01

(1)widely naturalized elsewhere

(1)USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl (Accessed 04 May 2010)

3.02

(1)C. sativa can exist in a wide variety of habitats including prairies, fields (grain, flax, alfalfa), open woods, lakeshore, dry sandy soils, around elevators, roadsides, railways and waste places or weedy places (CBIF, 2003). C. sativa prefers well-drained soils (GISP, 2008)....it has been considered an agricultural weed, environmental weed, and a naturalized weed (GCW, 2007) in addition to an economic weed (API, 2008). However, C. sativa is primarily a minor weed in flax and not often a problem in other crops (Putnam et al., 1993).

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

3.03

(1)A weed of corn and flax fields in Britain...his species is a bad companion plant, depressing the growth of nearby plants[18]. It has become a noxious weed of cultivated fields in some of the areas into which it has been introduced[2].

(1)Plants For A Future. 2008. Camelina sativa. http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Camelina+sativa [Accessed 05 May 2010]

3.04

(1)Listed as an environmental weed, but impacts are primarily to agriculture.

(1)Randall, R. 2007. Global Compendium of Weeds Camelina sativa (Brassicaceae). http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/camelina_sativa/ [Accessed 05 May 2010]

3.05

(1)Glacier National Park’s Invasive Weed List: all noxious non-native plant species tracked by Glacier National Park as invasive [includes Camelina microcarpa] (2)Weed species present only in small grain crops of the lowland area [includes Camelina microcarpa] (3)Those weeds designated as a "Noxious Weed" in Saskatechewan are: [includes Camelina microcarpa]

(1)Adams, A. 2009. INVASIVE WEEDS IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK: HABITAT, VECTORS OF SPREAD, AND AREAS AT GREATEST RISK OF INVASION. MSc. Thesis. Duke University. (2)VRBNICANIN, S. et al. 2009. Weed vegetation of small grain crops in Serbia: environmental and human impacts. - Turk J Agric For 33: 325-337 (3)Center for Invasive Plant Management. 2010. State and Provinces Weed Lists. http://www.weedcenter.org/inv_plant_info/state.html [Accessed 05 May 2010]

4.01

(1)Glabrous, or nearly so, simple or branching above, 1-2 feet high.

(1)Britton, N. L. and Brown, A. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British possessions: from Newfoundland to the parallel of the southern boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the 102d meridian. - Scribner.

4.02

(1)Abstract 1.In the presence of suitable phyllosphere bacteria, aqueous washings of the foliage of Camelina sativa contain allelochemicals. 2. Investigations into the nature of these chemicals and their precursors, and the essential role of bacteria in the production of allelochemicals are discussed. 3. Benzylamine is identified as an allelochemical influencing the association of C. sativa with Linum usitatissimum. (2)Abstract In the presence of phyllosphere bacteria, aqueous washings of foliage of Camelina sativa stimulate early growth of several species of higher plants. At least two bacteria can promote the observed effects, however, suitable substrates for bacterial activity may be limited to cruciferous plants. The stimulatory principle is produced rapidly by bacterial activity and is probably an organic chemical produced by bacterial degradation of more complex compounds commonly found in the Cruciferae. (3)C. sativa has been described as an allelopathic crop affecting other crops

(1)Lovett, J. V. and Duffield, A. M. 1981. Allelochemicals of Camelina sativa. - Journal of applied ecology 18: 283-290 (2)Lovett, J. V. and Jackson, H. F. 1980. Allelopathic activity of Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz in relation to its phyllosphere bacteria. - New Phytologist 86: 273-277 (3)Kohli, R. K. et al. 2001. Allelopathy in agroecosystems. - CRC

4.03

(1)Not parasitic

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

4.04

(1)The palatability of the crop when green is not lost on grazing animals including antelope in Montana.

(1)Pilgeram, A.L., David C. Sands, Darrin Boss, Nick Dale, David Wichman, Peggy Lamb, Chaofu Lu, Rick Barrows, Mathew Kirkpatrick, Brian Thompson, and Duane L. Johnson. 2007. Camelina sativa, A Montana Omega-3 and Fuel Crop. In Issues in new crops and new uses. 2007. J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.). ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

4.05

(1)The production of oil from seed by pressing yields a by-product in the form of oil-cakes. Camelina oil-cakes can be exploited as a protein rich ingredient in fodder mixtures for animals, particularly for poultry (Zubr, 1993)...Protein and fibre content in seed are also important parameters with regard to the nutritional value of the oil-cakes. The content of crude protein in seed ranges from 25 to 45% (Nordestgaard, 1961; Plessers et al., 1962; Korsrud et al., 1978; Marquard and Kuhlmann, 1986). According to earlier reports, the content of crude fibre in camelina seed is about 10% (Plessers et al., 1962; Korsrud et al., 1978). [apparently does not contain toxic compounds]

(1)Zubr, J., 1993. New source of protein for laying hens, Feed Compounder April 1993: 23-25..

4.06

(1)The cultivation of the crop is simple and environmentally friendly. No application of pesticides/herbicides is needed. (2)Abstract: There is renewed interest in the crucifer Camelina sativa (false flax, camelina, gold of pleasure) as an alternative oilseed crop because of its potential value for food, feed, and industrial applications. This species is adapted to canola-growing areas in many regions of the world and is generally considered to be resistant to many diseases. A review of the literature indicates that C. sativa is highly resistant to alternaria black spot and blackleg of crucifers. Genotypes resistant to sclerotinia stem rot, brown girdling root rot, and downy mildew can be found among C. sativa accessions, raising the possibility of developing cultivars resistant to these diseases. However, C. sativa is susceptible to clubroot, white rust, and aster yellows disease. Until resistant cultivars or effective management practices have been developed, the susceptibility of C. sativa to these diseases will limit the cultivation of the crop in areas where these diseases are prevalent. Key words: false flax, alternaria black spot, sclerotinia stem rot, root rot, white rust, blackleg, downy mildew, clubroot, aster yellows, Brassicaceae.

(1)Zubr, J. 1997. Oil-seed crop: Camelina sativa. - Industrial Crops and Products 6: 113-119 (2)Séguin-Swartz, G. et al. 2009. Diseases of Camelina sativa (false flax). - Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 31: 375-386

4.07

(1)Known Hazards. None known...An edible oil is obtained from the seed

(1)Plants For A Future. 2008. Camelina sativa. http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Camelina+sativa [Accessed 05 May 2010]

4.08

(1)Increased fire hazard not among the risks associated with this species.

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

4.09

(1)An easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils and preferring a sunny position. It does well on poor land.

(1)Plants For A Future. 2008. Camelina sativa. http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Camelina+sativa [Accessed 05 May 2010]

4.10

(1)The crop is flexible and can be grown with success under different climatic and soil conditions with the exception of heavy clay-and organic soil. CS is relatively resistant to drought.

(1)Zubr, J. 1997. Oil-seed crop: Camelina sativa. - Industrial Crops and Products 6: 113-119

4.11

(1)Glabrous, or nearly so, simple or branching above, 1-2 feet high.

(1)Britton, N. L. and Brown, A. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British possessions: from Newfoundland to the parallel of the southern boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the 102d meridian. - Scribner.

4.12

(1)No evidence of thicket formation

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Zubr, J. 1997. Oil-seed crop: Camelina sativa. - Industrial Crops and Products 6: 113-119

5.02

(1)Brassicaceae

(1)USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl (Accessed 04 May 2010)

5.03

(1)Brassicaceae

(1)USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl (Accessed 04 May 2010)

5.04

(1)Not a geophyte

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

6.01

(1)No evidence of reproductive failure

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

6.02

(1)The small (< 5 mm) pear-shaped capsule with a tip (2-3 mm) contains about 15 oval-shaped yellow seeds. During ripening and later under storage, the colour of the seeds turns dark-brown/reddish. The weight of 1000 seeds is 0.8- 1.8 g, depending on variety, growth conditions, nutrition, etc.

(1)Zubr, J. 1997. Oil-seed crop: Camelina sativa. - Industrial Crops and Products 6: 113-119

6.03

(1)Abstract Black spot, caused by Alternaria brassicae and A. brassicicola, is an important disease in all Brassica oleracea vegetables. Sufficient resistance to the pathogen is not found within the species, nor in species that readily cross to B. oleracea. Camelina sativa (false flax) is highly resistant to Alternaria spp. and has, in addition, other desirable characters for the improvement of B. oleracea. Protoplast fusions were performed between rapid cycling B. oleracea (tribe Brassiceae), which has good regenerability, and C. sativa (tribe Sisymbrieae) by polyethylene glycol (PEG) treatment. The B. oleracea fusion partner was inactivated by treatment with iodoacetate. C. sativa has poor regenerability; hence, no pretreatment was needed for this species. The protoplasts were cultured using a feeder layer system. A total of 2903 calli were isolated from the fusions. Fourteen of these initiated shoots, i.e., 0.5% regeneration frequency. Approximately 110 shoots were excised from 6 of these calli and transferred to rooting medium. Rooted plantlets grew vigorously in vitro and flowering was frequently observed. However, establishment of rooted shoots in soil was unsuccessful. Hybrid identity was confirmed by intermediate shoot morphology, RAPD marker analysis, and flow cytometric estimation of nuclear DNA content. [ability to naturally hybridize unknown]

(1)Hansen, L. N. 1998. Intertribal somatic hybridization between rapid cycling Brassica oleracea L. and Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz. - Euphytica 104: 173-179

6.04

(1)Plants can self-sow when well-sited[K]. (2)It uses mixed mating as its system of breeding. The sex of this species is hermaphroditic. The fruit type is called a silicle (API, 2008). The seeds result from either self-pollination, or cross pollination by visiting insects.

(1)Plants For A Future. 2008. Camelina sativa. http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Camelina+sativa [Accessed 05 May 2010] (1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

6.05

(1)It uses mixed mating as its system of breeding. The sex of this species is hermaphroditic. The fruit type is called a silicle (API, 2008). The seeds result from either self-pollination, or cross pollination by visiting insects.

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

6.06

(1)The propagule of reproduction of C. sativa is the seed. [no evidence]

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

6.07

(1)CS can be grown as an annual summer crop or biannual winter crop.

(1)Zubr, J. 1997. Oil-seed crop: Camelina sativa. - Industrial Crops and Products 6: 113-119

7.01

(1)Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz -large-seeded false flax; caméline cultivée Self-compatible, autogamous, annual, introduced from Eurasia. Contaminant in flax and grain seed...Prairies, cultivated fields, around grain elevators, roadsides, railways, and waste places. 2n = 40, AB and BC (R. J. Moore, unpublished).

(1)Mulligan, G. A. 2002. Weedy mustards, Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) of Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 116: 623-631

7.02

(1)Recently, its value as an oilseed crop has been re-examined. Budin et al. (1995) studied the composition of camelina oil; they concluded that camelina as a low-input crop possesses a potential for food and non-food exploitation.

(1)Frohlich, A. and Rice, B. 2005. Evaluation of Camelina sativa oil as a feedstock for biodiesel production. - Industrial Crops and Products 21: 25-31.

7.03

(1) In some areas where flax cultivation is very intensive C. sativa var. sativa is replaced by var. linicola which has a lifecycle even more aligned with flax. The seeds are so similar that they are not readily separated and must be sown together.

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

7.04

(1)The species Camelina sativa shows evolution of seed size, due to dispersal strategy, in a striking way. This species is a common weed in flax in Europe. The subspecies growing in association with cultivated flax is taller and has heavier seeds that are matched in size to those of the host flax. This allows Camelina sativa to disperse by wind over the same distances as its flax protectors

(1)Rand, D. Competition, behaviour and seed size. PAMS department, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. http://www.cybermagic.co.nz/a/display/CM/Competition,+behaviour+and+seed+size [Accessed 05 May 2010]

7.05

(1)Seed pods are 6-14mm long and superficially resemble the bolls of flax. Fruits produce 10-25 tiny seeds (Schuster & Friedt, 1998) (0.7mm x 1.5mm), which are pale yellow-brown in colour and oblong in shape with a ridged surface (Mirek, 1981 in Putnam et al., 1993)...This species has an unspecialized mode of dispersal. [no special adaptations to water dispersal, but small size could allow seeds to be transported by overland water flow]

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

7.06

(1)This species has an unspecialized mode of dispersal. [not fleshy fruited]

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

7.07

(1)Seed pods are 6-14mm long and superficially resemble the bolls of flax. Fruits produce 10-25 tiny seeds (Schuster & Friedt, 1998) (0.7mm x 1.5mm), which are pale yellow-brown in colour and oblong in shape with a ridged surface (Mirek, 1981 in Putnam et al., 1993)...This species has an unspecialized mode of dispersal. [no means of external attachment]

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

7.08

(1)in the present study germinating seeds of C. sativa were frequently observed in slug faeces (S. Bassin, unpubl. data).

(1)Kollmann, J. and Bassin, S. 2001. Effects of management on seed predation in wildflower strips in northern Switzerland. - Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 83: 285-296

8.01

(1) Each plant can produce between 100 and 1000 seeds. Seeds are very tiny with the 1000-seed weight just 1g on average (Schuster & Freidt, 1998). [possibly]

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

8.02

(1)Viable seeds after 2-5 years [see Appendix]

(1)Saatkamp, A. et al. 2009. The seed bank longevity index revisited: limited reliability evident from a burial experiment and database analyses. - Annals of Botany 104: 715–724

8.03

(1)Chemical: Sulfentrazone, a PRE herbicide, completely eliminated C. sativa from treated plots regardless of rate in an experiment conducted in Montana in 2006 and 2007. The PRE herbicides reduced the C. sativa stand 15 to 56% at the half rate and 17 to 70% at the full rate. The results of the experiments indicate that there are several herbicides that have the potential to be utilized for C. sativa control (WSSA, 2008).

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

8.04

(1) In some areas where flax cultivation is very intensive C. sativa var. sativa is replaced by var. linicola which has a lifecycle even more aligned with flax. The seeds are so similar that they are not readily separated and must be sown together.

(1)Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) [Accessed 04 May 2010]

8.05

Unknown for Hawaii and Pacific


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