Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Basella alba


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 8


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Basella alba L. Family - Basellaceae. Common Names(s) - Ceylon spinach; Malabar spinach. Synonym(s) - Basella alba L.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

8

Supporting data:

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)The precise native range of B. alba is not known but is presumed to be Africa or somewhere in Asia. Today it is cultivated as a food plant throughout warmer regions of the world. [long history of cultivation, but no evidence that domestication has resulted in reduced competitive ability] (2)It is widely distributed in the tropics and often is cultivated in warm temperate areas of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It is usually considered native of southern Asia.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)Winters, H. F. 1963. Ceylon Spinach (Basella rubra). Economic Botany 17(3): 195-199.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)The precise native range of B. alba is not known but is presumed to be Africa or somewhere in Asia. Today it is cultivated as a food plant throughout warmer regions of the world. (2)It is widely distributed in the tropics and often is cultivated in warm temperate areas of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It is usually considered native of southern Asia.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)Winters, H. F. 1963. Ceylon Spinach (Basella rubra). Economic Botany 17(3): 195-199.

2.02

(1)The precise native range of B. alba is not known but is presumed to be Africa or somewhere in Asia. Today it is cultivated as a food plant throughout warmer regions of the world. (2)It is widely distributed in the tropics and often is cultivated in warm temperate areas of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It is usually considered native of southern Asia.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)Winters, H. F. 1963. Ceylon Spinach (Basella rubra). Economic Botany 17(3): 195-199.

2.03

(1)Plants are hardy in USDA zones 10-11. (2)Hardiness: USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F) USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) USDA Zone 11: above 4.5 °C (40 °F) (3)A glabrous annual, or short-lived perennial, succulent scrambling twiner, a polymorphic Afro-asian plant now dispersed pan-tropically by man, occurring in West Africa in cultivation and subspontaneously on margins of cultivated land, in thickets, on forest edges, often by water, from sea-level to montane situations. It will tolerate conditions of high humidity but prefers a drier tropical climate. (4)Basella grows well in hot, humid climates. Low temperatures slow growth rates and result in small leaves. Growth is also limited at altitudes higher than 500 m, due to day/night temperature variations.

(1)http://www.plantoftheweek.org/week445.shtml [Accessed 26 June 2009] (2)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/2561/ [Accessed 26 June 2009] (3)http://www.aluka.org/action/showMetadata?doi=10.5555/AL.AP.UPWTA.1_530&pgs= [Accessed 29 June 2009] (4)http://www.avrdc.org/LC/indigenous/basella.pdf [Accessed 29 June 2009]

2.04

(1)The precise native range of B. alba is not known but is presumed to be Africa or somewhere in Asia. Today it is cultivated as a food plant throughout warmer regions of the world.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

2.05

(1)The precise native range of B. alba is not known but is presumed to be Africa or somewhere in Asia. Today it is cultivated as a food plant throughout warmer regions of the world.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

3.01

(1)listed as naturalized in Hong Kong (2)Basellaceae Basella alba L. Status: Naturalized Distribution: Mi/ O (Ko: Waimanalo) (3)Listed as naturalized (invasive) in Taiwan (4)newly naturalized (O`ahu) and new island (Midway) (5)First listed as naturalized in the New South Wales Herbarium Annual Report, 1989-90, and by Harden (1993). The plant is believed to be restricted to small areas.

(1)Corlett, R. T. 1992. The Naturalized Flora of Hong Kong: A Comparison with Singapore. Journal of Biogeography 19(4): 421-430. (2)http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/result2.cfm [Accessed 26 June 2009] (3)Wu, S.-H., C-F Hsieh, and M. Rejmánek. 2004. Catalogue of the Naturalized Flora of Taiwan. Taiwania, 49(1):16-31. (4)Wagner, W. L. and D. R. Herbst. 2003. SUPPLEMENT TO THE MANUAL OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF HAWAI`I. V. 3.1 (5)Csurhes, S. and R. Edwards. 1998. Potential Environmental Weeds in Australia: Candidate Species for Preventative Control. Queensland Department of Natural Resources. Queensland, Australia. (6)Nagata, K. M. 1995. New Hawaiian Plant Records. IV. BISHOP MUSEUM CCASIONAL PAPERS: NO. 42: 10-13.

3.02

(1)Listed as a weed of Puerto Rico, but see reference 2 (2)In Puerto Rico, described as "sparingly cultivated at lower elevations" [no indication of weediness or of negative impacts, as suggested in reference 1] (3)Commonly climbing on shrubs in mixed forest; also as a weed in crops [several references to weediness in agricultural and natural settings warrant a "Yes" response to Question 3.02]

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/basella_alba/ [Accessed 29 June 2009] (2)Liogier, A. H., H. A. Liogier, L. F. Martorell. 2000. Flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands: a systematic synopsis. Second Edition Revised. Editorial UPR, San Juan, Puerto Rico. (3)Roy, G. P., B. K. Shukla, and B. Datt. 1992. Flora of Madhya Pradesh: Chhatarpur and Damoh. APH Publishing, New Delhi, India.

3.03

(1)Listed as a weed of sugarcane fields [Table 1. but no evidence of impacts listed] (2)[In the following abstract, B. alba is grown as a crop in which other weeds can affect growth and yield] Field experiments were conducted at the research farm of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Joydebpur during kharif-1 (March to July) seasons of 2005 and 2006 to identify the critical period of crop-weed competition for Indian spinach. Major weed species were Paspalurn commersoni, Echinochlaa crusgalli. Lie nv/nc india. Cyanotis axillaris and Cyperus rotundus. The lowest weed dry matter was 76.3 g m-2 in 2005 and l01.60 g m-2 in 2006 from the plots weeded up to 40 days after transplanting (DAT). The highest yields were obtained (74.82 t ha in 2005 and 48.48 t ha in 2006) from the weed free plots. The fresh yield of Indian spinach did not vary among no weeding upto 20, 30 and 40 DAT in 2006. But weeded plot upto 30 and 40 DAT produced identical yield in 2005. Maximum BCR (4.52) was obtained from weeded plots upto 30 DAT in 2005 but BCR (2.60) was same from weeded upto 30 and 40 DA F in 2006. On an average, highest BCR (3.55) was recorded from weeding upto 30 DAT. Results revealed that the critical period of crop weed competition lies between 20 and 30 DAT and two times hand weeding would be necessary within 30 DAT for maximum benefit.

(1)Ishimine, Y., M. Aramoto, T. Shinzato, N. Yamamori, and S. Yonemori. 1992. Distribution of cropland weeds and naturalized plants in Iriomote Island and its aspects in emergence. Sci. Bull. Coll. Agr. Univ. Ryukyus 39: 157-175. (2)KHAN, M.S.A., M. A. HOSSAIN, M. NURUL ISLAM, S.N. MAHFUZA AND M.K UDDIN. 2008. EFFECT OF DURATION OF WEED COMPETITION AND WEED CONTROL ON THE YIELD OF INDIAN SPINACH. Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 33(3): 623-629

3.04

(1)Listed as a potential environmental weed, but with no evidence or description of impacts

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/basella_alba/ [Accessed 29 June 2009]

3.05

(1)There are two color forms: one has green stems and petioles and white flowers; the other, called 'Rubra' [Syn.: B. rubra Linnaeus], has purplish stems and petioles and red or purple flowers. The latter was described as a distinct species but is now recognized as a color variant unworthy of a species rank. (2)Basella alba and B. rubra, both listed as weeds, are considered the same species.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/basella_alba/ and http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/basella_rubra/ [Accessed 26 June 2009]

4.01

(1)No spines, thorns or burrs

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

4.02

(1)No evidence [plant with long history of use]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

4.03

(1)Succulent glabrous herb becoming a slender, twining vine, the stems at first stout, to 2 cm thick, green, after several months of growth and attaining height of 15-45 cm, narrowing, sometimes abruptly and becoming slender, elongate and climbing.

(1)Woodson, Jr., R. E., R. W. Schery, and W. G. D'Arcy. 1979. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Family 58A. Basellaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 66(2): 109-115..

4.04

(1)Basella alba is abundantly cultivated in Hawaii. The leaves and young shoots are eaten steamed, boiled, stir-fried as a potherb, or raw as a salad green - a substitute for spinach [probably palatable to animals if edible to humans] (2)Plant species and part consumed by gorillas...Basella alba–LEAVES (3)Leaves given to cattle to increase milk.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)Ganas, J., J. B. Nkurunungi, and M. M. Robbins. 2009. A Preliminary Study of the Temporal and Spatial Biomass Patterns of Herbaceous Vegetation Consumed by Mountain Gorillas in an Afromontane Rain Forest. BIOTROPICA 41(1): 37–46. (3)Grosskinsky, B. and C. Gullick. 2000. Exploring the Potential of Indigenous Wild Food Plants in Southern Sudan. Proceedings of a Workshop Held in Lokichoggio, Kenya, June 3-5 1999.

4.05

(1)Livestock poison no [no evidence]

(1)http://www.crescentbloom.com/plants/specimen/BA/Basella%20alba.htm [Accessed 26 June 2009]

4.06

(1)Pests are few; mealybugs or aphids may attack plants grown in sheltered, moist situations and can be flushed off with a strong spray of water. (2)Few diseases affect basella, most notably leaf spot (Fig. 5), which may be caused by Cercospora, Alternaria or Colletotrichum. Numerous cultural practices can reduce the incidence of disease,

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)http://www.avrdc.org/LC/indigenous/basella.pdf [Accessed 29 June 2009]

4.07

(1)Basella alba is abundantly cultivated in Hawaii. The leaves and young shoots are eaten steamed, boiled, stir-fried as a potherb, or raw as a salad green - a substitute for spinach [no evidence of toxicity]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

4.08

(1)Dark green, fleshy leaves are broadly ovate to 5 inches (12.7 cm) long. [unlikely, succulent plant]

(1)http://www.plantoftheweek.org/week445.shtml [Accessed 26 June 2009]

4.09

(1)Basella alba will grow in full sun to partial shade and prefer a rich moist soil mix. (2)Sun Exposure: Sun to Partial Shade (3)It cannot grow in the shade. (4)requires partial shade

(1)http://www.plantoftheweek.org/week445.shtml [Accessed 26 June 2009] (2)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/2561/ [Accessed 26 June 2009] (3)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Basella+alba [Accessed 26 June 2009] (4)http://www.cd3wd.com/cd3wd_40/cd3wd/agric/ii06be/en/B144_6.HTM [Accessed 29 June 2009]

4.10

(1)Although tolerant of a wide array of soils and climates, best growth is attained when a fertile, organically enriched soil is provided, along with regular watering and a sunny exposure. (2)Tolerates fairly poor soils but does much better in rich soils[206]. Tolerates high rainfall[206]. Tolerates a pH in the range 4.3 to 7.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Basella+alba [Accessed 26 June 2009]

4.11

(1)These twining plants need a fence or trellis on which to climb, or many local gardeners allow the stems to scramble over a nearby shrub or tree…Given ideal conditions, plants grow rampantly and should be kept in bounds by regular trimming of the young shoot tips for food, or by diligent pruning.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

4.12

(1)These twining plants need a fence or trellis on which to climb, or many local gardeners allow the stems to scramble over a nearby shrub or tree…Given ideal conditions, plants grow rampantly and should be kept in bounds by regular trimming of the young shoot tips for food, or by diligent pruning.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

5.01

(1)Terrestrial

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

5.02

(1)Basellaceae

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

5.03

(1)Basellaceae

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

5.04

(1)established plants send out underground rhizomes that produce small above-ground shoots, which can easily be dug up and transplanted [Answer "Yes" to question 6.06 for plants that spread by rhizomes]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

6.01

(1)The precise native range of B. alba is not known but is presumed to be Africa or somewhere in Asia. Today it is cultivated as a food plant throughout warmer regions of the world...The plant is usually propagated by stem cuttings, but seeds also germinate readily [no evidence of substantial reproductive failure]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

6.02

(1)The plant is usually propagated by stem cuttings, but seeds also germinate readily

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

6.03

[widespread cultivation as a crop with no reports or hybrids in cultivation or in the wild; only a few species in the genus worldwide

 

6.04

(1)The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs). (2)Table 2. Provisional data on seed production of vegetables in the tropics:..fertilization…Basella. Self-fertile

(1)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Basella+alba [Accessed 26 June 2009] (2)Grubben, G. J. H. 1978. Vegetable Seeds for the Tropics, Bulletin 301. Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology (SKAT), Varnbuelstrasse, SWITZERLAND.

6.05

(1)The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) [no evidence] (2)Table 2. Provisional data on seed production of vegetables in the tropics:..fertilization…Basella. Self-fertile

(1)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Basella+alba [Accessed 26 June 2009] (2)Grubben, G. J. H. 1978. Vegetable Seeds for the Tropics, Bulletin 301. Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology (SKAT), Varnbuelstrasse, SWITZERLAND.

6.06

(1)established plants send out underground rhizomes that produce small above-ground shoots, which can easily be dug up and transplanted.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

6.07

(1)The plant is usually propagated by stem cuttings, but seeds also germinate readily (2)Basella alba, or Malabar Spinach, is a very fast growing vine native to Tropical Africa to Asia. Vines will reach 30 feet (9.1 m) long in one growing season. (3)A fast growing plant, capable of producing a crop within 70 days from seed in a warm climate

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI (2)http://www.plantoftheweek.org/week445.shtml [Accessed 26 June 2009] (3)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Basella+alba [Accessed 26 June 2009]

7.01

(1)Fruit flattened-globosa, ca. 0.2", fleshy calyx red, whitish or black. Seed 1 [no means of external attachment & no indication that vegetative fragments are inadvertently transported]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

7.02

(1)Today it is cultivated as a food plant throughout the warm regions of the world.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

7.03

(1)No evidence

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

7.04

(1)Fruit flattened-globosa, ca. 0.2", fleshy calyx red, whitish or black. Seed 1 [fleshy-fruited]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

7.05

(1)on margins of cultivated land, in thickets, on forest edges, often by water, from sea-level to montane situations. [possible that seeds/fruits an/or vegetative pieces may be buoyant based on distribution next to water]

(1)http://www.aluka.org/action/showMetadata?doi=10.5555/AL.AP.UPWTA.1_530&pgs= [Accessed 29 June 2009]

7.06

(1)Fruit flattened-globosa, ca. 0.2", fleshy calyx red, whitish or black. Seed 1 [fleshy-fruited]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

7.07

(1)Fruit flattened-globosa, ca. 0.2", fleshy calyx red, whitish or black. Seed 1 [no means of external attachment]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

7.08

(1)Fruit flattened-globosa, ca. 0.2", fleshy calyx red, whitish or black. Seed 1 [fleshy-fruited]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

8.01

(1)Fruit flattened-globosa, ca. 0.2", fleshy calyx red, whitish or black. Seed 1...The plant is usually propagated by stem cuttings, but seeds also germinate readily…[probably not, as only single-seeded fruit, and plants mainly propagated vegetatively]

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora. Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Pacific Islands. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI

8.02

(1)Storage Conditions: 50% germination following 5 years open storage (Ewart, 1908) [no evidence found from field settings]

(1)Liu, K., Eastwood, R.J., Flynn, S., Turner, R.M., and Stuppy, W.H. 2008. Seed Information Database (release 7.1, May 2008) http://www.kew.org/data/sid [Accessed 29 June 2009]

8.03

Unknown [no information found on control of this species with herbicides]

 

8.04

(1)In containers, the plants can get out of hand fairly fast; we cut the vines back twice a year. During the winter months, fertilizer is withheld and watering is reduced but not to the point of causing leaf dieback.

(1)http://www.plantoftheweek.org/week445.shtml [Accessed 26 June 2009]

8.05


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