Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)


Bacopa procumbens 'Goldflake'


RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 7


Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i.
Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment
  Mecardonia procumbens 'Goldflake' (Synonyms - Bacopa procumbens Also see 42 synonyms listed for this species - see -http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast)  Family - Scrophylariaceae Answer Score
1.01 Is the species highly domesticated? n 0
1.02 Has the species become naturalized where grown? y  
1.03 Does the species have weedy races? n  
2.01 Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical” 2  
2.02 Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high)                 see appendix 2 2  
2.03 Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility) y 1
2.04 Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates y 1
2.05 Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?  y=-2 y  
3.01 Naturalized beyond native range         y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05 y 2
3.02 Garden/amenity/disturbance weed                              y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) y 2
3.03 Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed                         y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) y 4
3.04 Environmental weed                                                     y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) n 0
3.05 Congeneric weed                                                          y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) n 0
4.01 Produces spines, thorns or burrs n 0
4.02 Allelopathic n 0
4.03 Parasitic n 0
4.04 Unpalatable to grazing animals    
4.05 Toxic to animals n 0
4.06 Host for recognized pests and pathogens n 0
4.07 Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans n 0
4.08 Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems n 0
4.09 Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle n 0
4.1 Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)    
4.11 Climbing or smothering growth habit n 0
4.12 Forms dense thickets n 0
5.01 Aquatic n 0
5.02 Grass n 0
5.03 Nitrogen fixing woody plant n 0
5.04 Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers) n 0
6.01 Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat n 0
6.02 Produces viable seed. y 1
6.03 Hybridizes naturally    
6.04 Self-compatible or apomictic    
6.05 Requires specialist pollinators n 0
6.06 Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation n -1
6.07 Minimum generative time (years)                 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1 1 1
7.01 Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas) n -1
7.02 Propagules dispersed intentionally by people y 1
7.03 Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant y 1
7.04 Propagules adapted to wind dispersal n -1
7.05 Propagules water dispersed n -1
7.06 Propagules bird dispersed n -1
7.07 Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally) n -1
7.08 Propagules survive passage through the gut n -1
8.01 Prolific seed production (>1000/m2) y 1
8.02 Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)    
8.03 Well controlled by herbicides y -1
8.04 Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire    
8.05 Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)    
  Total score:   7

Supporting data:

  Notes Reference
1.01 Goldflake' is a Mecardonia hybrid.'Mecardonia is a totally new plant introduction. It's a vigorous low grower with a trailing habit. Bright yellow flowers cover the plant all spring, summer and even into fall. Use as ground cover, in window boxes and hanging baskets. Sure to be a new favorite!' [No evidence as to how this hybrid was created]. http://www.ashlandgreenhouses.com/detail.php?id=1464&cat=deluxe
1.02 (1)Naturalized in Taiwan (naturalized along Nan-Hua River in wet wastelands and campus of National Hyalien Teachers College lawn in a rather large mass). 'M. procumbens is a weedy plant distributed from tropical America to Texas and Florida of the United States, also naturalized to Java.  (2)Introduced and naturalized to the southern parts of India. (3) 'Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.' (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92. (2)Joseph, K T and Suresh C R. 1982. Notes on two interesting exotic species from South India. Indian Journal of Botany. 5(2): 126 -127. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.
1.03 No evidence. [Kaul (1974) has differentiated two ecotypes, erect and repent, of the species. The erect form according to Kaul is facultative calcicole and is unbranched, while the repent form is an obligate calcifuge and gives out several lateral branches.' Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.
2.01 (1)Naturalized in Taiwan (naturalized along Nan-Hua River in wet wastelands and campus of National Hyalien Teachers College lawn in a rather large mass). 'M. procumbens is a weedy plant distributed from tropical America to Texas and Florida of the United States, also naturalized to Java.  (2)Introduced and naturalized to the southern parts of India. (3) 'Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.' (4)Central and Southern Americas. (5)Native range tropical America. (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92. (2)Joseph, K T and Suresh C R. 1982. Notes on two interesting exotic species from South India. Indian Journal of Botany. 5(2): 126 -127. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375. (4)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl  (5)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/bacopa_procumbens.htm
2.02    
2.03 (1) It needs a temperature above 16°C to get a good flowering plant.  (2)Zones 9 - 11. (3)Many specimens collected from Nicaragua were above 1000 m. Range 0 to > 1000 m. (1)http://www.florensis.nl/uk/prod/neu/neu64.htm  (2)http://www.ashlandgreenhouses.com/detail.php?id=1464&cat=deluxe  (3)http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast#africa
2.04 (1)Naturalized in Taiwan (naturalized along Nan-Hua River in wet wastelands and campus of National Hyalien Teachers College lawn in a rather large mass). 'M. procumbens is a weedy plant distributed from tropical America to Texas and Florida of the United States, also naturalized to Java.  (2)Introduced and naturalized to the southern parts of India. (3) 'Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.' (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92. (2)Joseph, K T and Suresh C R. 1982. Notes on two interesting exotic species from South India. Indian Journal of Botany. 5(2): 126 -127. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.
2.05 (1)Naturalized in Taiwan (naturalized along Nan-Hua River in wet wastelands and campus of National Hyalien Teachers College lawn in a rather large mass). 'M. procumbens is a weedy plant distributed from tropical America to Texas and Florida of the United States, also naturalized to Java.  (2)Introduced and naturalized to the southern parts of India. (3) 'Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.'   (4)Introduced to China. (50Introduced to several Islands in Micronesia. (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92. (2)Joseph, K T and Suresh C R. 1982. Notes on two interesting exotic species from South India. Indian Journal of Botany. 5(2): 126 -127. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375. (4)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=242000973  (5)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/bacopa_procumbens.htm
3.01 (1)Naturalized in Taiwan (naturalized along Nan-Hua River in wet wastelands and campus of National Hyalien Teachers College lawn in a rather large mass). 'M. procumbens is a weedy plant distributed from tropical America to Texas and Florida of the United States, also naturalized to Java.  (2)Introduced and naturalized to the southern parts of India. (3) 'Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.' (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92. (2)Joseph, K T and Suresh C R. 1982. Notes on two interesting exotic species from South India. Indian Journal of Botany. 5(2): 126 -127. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.
3.02  (1)Naturalized in Taiwan along Mu-Gua River in wet wastelands, campus of National Teachers College, on lawn in a rather large mass.  'It occurs in open sunny moisture soils along streams and on lawns in university campus. Associated with the following weesds: Mazus pumilus, Lindernia crustacea, Conyza canadensis, Phyllanthus embergeri and Rossingnol, Chamaesyce hirta, Cyanodon dactylon, Paspalum conjugatum, Eragrostis amabilis, Kyllinga brevifolia.'  (2)'Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.' ... 'The plant is commonly growning in association with some crops as a weed or in the wasteland. Materials for the present investigation were collected from three different populations growing in three different crop fields.'  (3)A weed of wet or brackish localities (Stone, 1970). In New Guinea, "a plant of disturbed land and heavily-grazed grassland, and a weed of cultivation and lawns" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975). (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.  (2)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.  (3)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/bacopa_procumbens.htm
3.03 (1)'Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.' ... 'The plant is commonly growning in association with some crops as a weed or in the wasteland. Materials for the present investigation were collected from three different populations growing in three different crop fields.'   (2)Listed by Global Pest Plant Information Service: FAO (weed) (Food and Agricultural Organization). (1)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.  (2)http://www.hear.org/gcw/html/autogend/species/2494.htm - GWC data source # 88.
3.04 No evidence  
3.05 No evidence  
4.01 No evidence of any such structures. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
4.02 No evidence  
4.03 No evidence  
4.04 Don’t know  
4.05 No evidence  
4.06 Oidium sp of fungi are associated with M. procumbens, but no evidence regarding specific species. Farr, D.F., Rossman, A.Y., Palm, M.E., & McCray, E.B. (n.d.) Fungal Databases, Systematic Botany & Mycology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. Retrieved July 5, 2006, from http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/
4.07 No evidence  
4.08 Probaby not - An evergreen herbaceous species not know to be groups.  
4.09 (1)Exposure sun or part sun. (2)Probably not - 'It occurs in open sunny moisture soils along streams …' (1)http://www.ashlandgreenhouses.com/detail.php?id=1464&cat=deluxe  (2)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
4.1 No evidence regarding soil requirements.  
4.11 No evidence Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
4.12 No evidence  
5.01 Perennial herb, procumbent or ascending, 10-15 cm tall. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
5.02 Perennial herb, procumbent or ascending, 10-15 cm tall. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
5.03 Perennial herb, procumbent or ascending, 10-15 cm tall. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
5.04 Perennial herb, procumbent or ascending, 10-15 cm tall. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
6.01 No such evidence.  Specimens at the Missouri Botanical Garden obtained from the native range were reproducing. http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast
6.02 Propagation - seed. http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/bacopa_procumbens.htm
6.03 Dont know -  'Goldflake' is a Mecardonia hybrid.'Mecardonia is a totally new plant introduction. It's a vigorous low grower with a trailing habit. Bright yellow flowers cover the plant all spring, summer and even into fall. Use as ground cover, in window boxes and hanging baskets. Sure to be a new favorite!' [No evidence as to how this hybrid was created]. http://www.ashlandgreenhouses.com/detail.php?id=1464&cat=deluxe
6.04 Don’t know  
6.05 Probably not - small yellow tubular flowers on a plant growing about 10-15 cm tall.The flower morphology does not indicate any specialist pollinators. Also this species has been introduced and naturalized in several places. (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92. (2)Joseph, K T and Suresh C R. 1982. Notes on two interesting exotic species from South India. Indian Journal of Botany. 5(2): 126 -127. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.
6.06 No evidence of spread by vegetative means. (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92. (2)Joseph, K T and Suresh C R. 1982. Notes on two interesting exotic species from South India. Indian Journal of Botany. 5(2): 126 -127. (3)Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375. (4)http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/bacopa_procumbens.htm
6.07 (1)Probably 1 year. It is a perennial herb 10 to 15 cms tall that flowers year round.  (2)Sold as an annual plant. (1)Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.  (2)http://www.ashlandgreenhouses.com/master_cache.php?cat=deluxe
7.01 The plant has a prostrate habit and is suggested for use as ground cover. Although no evidence that it is grown in heavily trafficked areas. http://www.ashlandgreenhouses.com/detail.php?id=1464&cat=deluxe
7.02 (1)'Mecardonia is a totally new plant introduction. It's a vigorous low grower with a trailing habit. Bright yellow flowers cover the plant all spring, summer and even into fall. Use as ground cover, in window boxes and hanging baskets. Sure to be a new favorite!'  Plants can be purchased through this nursery. http://www.ashlandgreenhouses.com/detail.php?id=1464&cat=deluxe
7.03 Mecardonia procumbens (Scrophulariaceae) is a perennial wild herb of Ameican origin, recently introduced in India. In recent years it has spread widly in different parts of the country and estalishing itself as a pernicous weed.' ... 'The plant is commonly growning in association with some crops as a weed or in the wasteland. Materials for the present investigation were collected from three different populations growing in three different crop fields.' [Probably yes - the plant has relatively small seeds and can grow in crop fields]. Sinha, A. R. P. 1987. Report of B chromosome in Mercadonia procumbens (Miller) Small. Cytologia. 52: 373-375.
7.04 No evidence that the seeds have any special adaptations for wind dispersal. Probably disperses by gravity - fruit is a capusle that dehisces septicidally with cylindrical seeds that are about 0.5 mm long and 2 mm wide. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
7.05 Probably not - an artificially derived plant -no evidence of adaptation to dispersal by water.  
7.06 Probably not - fruit is a capsule with septicidal dehiscence. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
7.07 Probably not - no evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
7.08 Probably not - no evidence regarding ingestion by animals. The fruit is a capsule with relatively small seeds that appear to be dispersed by gravity. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
8.01 Solitary flowers in axils on pedicels … capsule ellipsoidal, 5 mm long and 2 mm wide, brown, septicidally dehiscent valves bifid, seeds cylindrical, 0.5 mm long …'. Flowering year round. [Probably yes - given it flowers year round and has relatively small seeds]. Chen, S. and Wu, M. 2001. Notes on two newly naturalized plants in Taiwan. Taiwaniana. 46(1): 85-92.
8.02 No evidence regarding seedbank.  
8.03  'Tha plants of Mecardonia procumbes treated with 100 ppm aqueous solution of 2, 4-D could not survive but several abnormalities were in 10-50 ppm. … The present paper deals with the effect of 2-4, D on the meiotic behaviour of a weed, Mercadonia procumbens.' [Although this paper is regarding experimental work, the plants were sprayed under natural conditions and as they did not survive the 100 ppm strength of 2, 4D suggests that they can be controlled/ killed using 100 ppm of 2, 4-D]. Trivedi, M.P. and A.K. Alok. 1991. Cytological effects of 2, 4-D in Mecardonia procumbes (Miller) Small. Acta Botanica Indica. 19: 84-86.
8.04 No evidence. But the plant has prostrate habit and is suggested for use as ground cover.  
8.05 Don’t know.  

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