Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Family - Poaceae.
Common Names(s) -
Synonym(s) - NA.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

0

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

0.5

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

1

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

0.5

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

11

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/anthodo.pdf [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Native to Eurasia and now widely naturalized in temperate North America. (2)Distribution: Native to Europe, temperate Asia and North Africa. Has become susbcosmopolitan in temperate regions. From the coast to alpine levels in mountain areas.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/PF000422.HTM [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]

2.02

2.03

(1)Hardiness:
USDA Zone 3a: to -39.9 °C (-40 °F)
USDA Zone 3b: to -37.2 °C (-35 °F)
USDA Zone 4a: to -34.4 °C (-30 °F)
USDA Zone 4b: to -31.6 °C (-25 °F)
USDA Zone 5a: to -28.8 °C (-20 °F)
USDA Zone 5b: to -26.1 °C (-15 °F)
USDA Zone 6a: to -23.3 °C (-10 °F)
USDA Zone 6b: to -20.5 °C (-5 °F)
USDA Zone 7a: to -17.7 °C (0 °F)
USDA Zone 7b: to -14.9 °C (5 °F)
USDA Zone 8a: to -12.2 °C (10 °F)
USDA Zone 8b: to -9.4 °C (15 °F)
USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F)
USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F)

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/32276/ [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]

2.04

(1)on Molokai, Maui and Hawaii. [native to upper elevation, "temperate" regions of Hawaiian Islands]

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

2.05

(1)Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, North America, South America, Mascarenes, Micronesia, Hawaiian Islands

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

3.01

(1)Native to Eurasia and now widely naturalized in temperate North America. (2)Naturalised. N.; S.: throughout; St.; K., Ch., A., C. Roadsides, waste land, pasture and tussock grassland, in scrub or forest clearings, sometimes in boggy, or sandy or rocky, stony ground; sea level to subalpine.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. (2)Edgar, E. and H. Connor. 2000. Flora of New Zealand Volume 5: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press. Lincoln, N.Z.

3.02

A disturbance weed with environmental impacts [See 3.04] (1)This small, perennial bunchgrass forms extensive ground cover in open mesic and dry habitats at high elevations. It invades disturbed areas, preventing the reestablishment of native species. (2)Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernalgrass) invades disturbed sites at higher elevations. It occurs on the 6,800-ft (2,070-m) transect in shrubland areas that have been disturbed by foraging of feral goats and pigs.

(1)Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawai`i's native biota. Pp.180-250. In C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott (eds.). Hawai`i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and management. Univ. Hawai`i Coop. Natl. Park Resour. Stud. Unit. Honolulu: Univ. Hawai`i Pr. (2)Anderson, S.J., C. P. Stone, and P. K. Higashino. 1992. Distribution of Six Alien Plant Species in Upland Habitats on the Island of Hawai`i. Pp. 300-338 in C. P. Stone, C. W. Smith, and J. T. Tunison (eds.). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawai`i: Management and Research. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. Honolulu, HI.

3.03

A disturbance weed with environmental impacts [See 3.04]

3.04

(1)Coastal dunes, grass- and heathland, forests, freshwater wetlands, riparian habitats…The species is highly competitive to other grass species because it grows rapidly and flowers earlier than native species…The herbicide dalapon has proved to be effective for control of this grass. (2)The subalpine shrubland has been modified by years of impact of goats, cattle, and pigs. The often dense mat of alien grasses such as velvet grass (Holcus lanatus), sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), and orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) inhibits reproduction by seed of native shrubs.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. (2)Loope, L.L., R. J. Nagata, and A. C. Medeiros. 1992. Alien plants in Haleakala National Park. Pp. 551-576 in C. P. Stone, C. W. Smith, and J. T. Tunison (eds.). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawai`i: Management and Research. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. Honolulu, HI.

3.05

(1)Anthoxanthum aristatum...cultivated and occasionally escaped weed species of cultivated and wasteland, disturbed sites, in open habitats (2)Anthoxanthum aristatum…agricultural weed, casual alien, cultivation escape, environmental weed, garden thug, naturalised, sleeper weed, weed

(1)Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. (2)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/anthoxanthum_aristatum/ [Accessed 14 Aug 2008]

4.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.02

(1)Like many other grasses, sweet vernal grass contains allelopathic chemicals that suppress the growth of other plant species. (2)Abstract The growth of Zoysia japonica surrounding Anthoxanthum odoratum on Zoysia-grassland in Japan was investigated in June 1994. The stem density of Z. japonica tended to decrease with short distances between two A. odoratum plants. This showed that the growth of Z. japonica surrounding A. odoratum was reduced. Basic, neutral, and acidic fractions extracted from A. odoratum plants inhibited the seedling growth of lettuce. In particular the neutral fraction showed the strongest activity among the three fractions. The main inhibitory compound obtained atR f 0.6–0.7, on the thin-layer chromatogram of the neutral fraction, was isolated and identified as coumarin by means of GC-MS. Coumarin solution inhibited seedling growth of Z. japonica in low concentrations but, conversely, promoted seedling growth of A. odoratum. Coumarin was contained in all parts o fA. odoratum and its concentration varied with the season and from one individual plant to another. In particular, coumarin was highly concentrated in the leaves, accounting for more than 2.5% of dry leaf weight in June. The inhibitory effect of these aqueous extracts was correlated to the amount of coumarin in A. odoratum leaves and cournarin was considered to be the main inhibitory compound.

(1)Scott, D. 1975. Allelopathic interactions of resident tussock grassland species on germination of oversown seed. New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture 3:135- 141. (2)Yamamoto, Y. 1995. Allelopathic potential of Anthoxanthum odoratum for invading Zoysia-grassland in Japan. Journal of Chemical Ecology 21(9): 1573-1561.

4.03

(1)No evidence

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

4.04

(1)As the early grazing industry needed improved varieties, it initially drew upon proven forage plants that were available from temperate areas. In general, these plants did not do well at lower elevations but improved the forage in the cooler regions of Hawai`i. It would be difficult to imagine what Mauna Kea would look like without sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), or what Ka`u would be like without meadow ricegrass (Ehrharta stipoides) or kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum). They have become part of the landscape along with many other introduced plants.

(1)Cran, G. and K. Dillingham. 1992. Choosing plant introductions: needs of graziers. Pp. 732-735 in C. P. Stone, C. W. Smith, and J. T. Tunison (eds.). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawai`i: Management and Research. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. Honolulu, HI.

4.05

Not directly toxic, but indirect poisoning can result (1)ABSTRACT: A diagnosis of dicoumarol toxicity in a herd of Friesian cattle was made following investigation of the deaths of three mature cows and eleven yearling heifers. Affected stock had been fed wrapped, bailed silage containing approximately 90% sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). Sweet vernal grass contains coumarin, which can be converted to dicoumarol, a vitamin K antagonist, through the action of moulds. Most deaths were preceded by lethargy, severe anaemia and subcutaneous and internal haemorrhage. Dicoumarol toxicosis was suspected based on clinical signs, necropsy findings and prolonged prothrombin and activated partial thromboplastin times. Dicoumarol analysis of blood from affected animals and silage confirmed the diagnosis.

(1)RUNCIMAN, D.J., A.M. LEE, K.F.M. REED and J.R. WALSH . 2008. Dicoumarol toxicity in cattle associated with ingestion of silage containing sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). Australian Veterinary Journal 80(1): 28-32. (2)Dwyer CJ, Downing GM and Gabor LJ. 2003. Dicoumarol toxicity in neonatal calves associated with the feeding of sweet vernal (Anthoxanthum odoratum) hay. Aust Vet J. 81(6):332-335.

4.06

Well-studied grass with no mention of being an important alternative host of pests or pathogens (1)Puccinia poae-nemoralis - Puccinia (2)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/pph/hosts/201.htm [Accessed 14 Aug 2008] (2)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

4.07

(1)provocative of hay asthma, it produces a lot of pollen and is a major irritant to people who suffer from hay fever, in Europe inhalation of grass pollen is the predominant cause of hay fever and related hypersensitivity reactions

(1)Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

4.08

(1)In some forest stands, invasive grasses such as wood blue-grass (Poa nemoralis L.), Japanese stiltgrass (included in the present study), fine-leaved sheep fescue (Festuca filiformis Pourret), and sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum L.) changed the fuel bed by significantly increasing the load of continuous fine fuels.

(1)Dibble, A.C., R. H. White and P. K. Lebow. 2007. Combustion characteristics of north-eastern USA vegetation tested in the cone calorimeter: invasive versus non-invasive plants. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16: 426–443.

4.09

(1)Sun Exposure: Full Sun

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/32276/ [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]

4.10

(1)Soil: Optimum on dry soils but also frequent on well drained or even wet soils. Restricted to nutrient poor soils especially in phosphorus. More abundant on acid soils than on basic soils. Very large range for the soil texture.

(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/PF000422.HTM [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]

4.11

(1)Slender perennials, forming small tufts

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

4.12

(1)The often dense mat of alien grasses such as velvet grass (Holcus lanatus), sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), and orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) inhibits reproduction by seed of native shrubs.

(1)Loope, L.L., R. J. Nagata, and A. C. Medeiros. 1992. Alien plants in Haleakala National Park. Pp. 551-576 in C. P. Stone, C. W. Smith, and J. T. Tunison (eds.). Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawai`i: Management and Research. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit. Honolulu, HI.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Poaceae

5.03

Poaceae

5.04

(1)No evidence

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

6.02

(1)The grass reproduces by seeds and does not spread vegetatively.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

6.03

Don't know, but may be of hybrid origin (1)It is concluded that odoratum is not autotetraploid but a species of hybrid origin. This denies the diploid-autotetraploid relationship of alpinum and odoratum suggested by earlier workers and substantiates their separate classification.

(1)Jones, K. 1964. Chromosomes and the nature and origin of Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Chromosoma 15(3): 248-274.

6.04

(1)The plants are generally self-incompatible

(1)Antonovics, J. 1972. Population dynamics of the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum on a zinc mine. J. Ecology. 60:351-365.

6.05

Poaceae - wind-pollinated

6.06

(1)The grass reproduces by seeds and does not spread vegetatively.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

6.07

(1)The species is highly competitive to other grass species because it grows rapidly and flowers earlier than native species

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

7.01

(1)Species found along the road verge in this study, such as Acetosella vulgaris, Anthxanthum odoratum…are commonly associated with human disturbance in the Australian Alps...The road verge seed banks were dominated by exotic propagules, particularly Acetosella vulgaris, Achillea millefolium, Anthoxanthum odoratum...[species spread along roadsides]

(1)Johnston, F.M. 2005. Exotic Plants in the Australian Alps Including a Case Study of the Ecology of Achillea mellefolium, in Kosciuszko National Park. PhD Dissertation. Griffith University. Gold Coast, AU.

7.02

(1)AGR121 Sweet Vernal Grass ( Anthoxanthum odoratum ) A clumping, evergreen grass with soft green leaves about a ¼" wide by 8" long. Grass emits a delightful fragrance when cut or brushed against. Fragrance remains in leaves for days after being cut. Flowers are silky green panicles that grow 15" above foliage and turn a showy yellow. Excellent border plant, it also holds up well to traffic and is often planted along edges of lawns, so that it's sweet fragrance can be released each time the lawn is mowed. [seeds sold as ornamentals]

(1)http://www.seedman.com/Orngrass.htm [Accessed 14 Aug 2008]

7.03

Growing with and among other grasses; seeds likely to be mixed in with other grass crops (1)Weed: also potential seed contaminant (2)Coastal dunes, grass- and heathland, forests, freshwater wetlands, riparian habitats…The species is highly competitive to other grass species because it grows rapidly and flowers earlier than native species

(1)www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?3594 [Accessed 14 Aug 2008] (2)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

7.04

(1)The seeds are dispersed by wind. (2)seeds dispersed by wind

(1)Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawai`i's native biota. Pp.180-250. In C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott (eds.). Hawai`i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and management. Univ. Hawai`i Coop. Natl. Park Resour. Stud. Unit. Honolulu: Univ. Hawai`i Pr. (2)Quattrocchi, U. 2006. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

7.05

(1)Seed, dispersed by wind, water and animals.

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/anthoxanthum_odoratum.htm [Accessed 14 Aug 2008]

7.06

Not adapted for bird dispersal

7.07

(1)Seed, dispersed by wind, water and animals. [awns could possibly stick to fur]

(1)http://www.hear.org/pier/species/anthoxanthum_odoratum.htm [Accessed 14 Aug 2008]

7.08

(1)viable A. odoratum seeds in dung…listed as Animal dispersed (2)Final Germination success of Veronica chamaedrys, Prunella vulgaris, Crepis capillaris and Anthoxanthum odoratum seeds which passed through rabbit guts was significantly higher than of those fed to sheep, cattle [but not A. odoratum], to donkey [ only for C. capillaris] and horse [ only A. odoratum].

(1)Bruun, H.H. and P. Poschlod. 2006. Why are small seeds dispersed through animal guts: large numbers or seed size per se? OIKOS 113: 402 411. (2)Cosyns, E. 2004. Ungulate Seed dispersal. Aspect of endozoochory in a semi-natural landscape. PhD Dissertation. Universiteit Gent.

8.01

(1)A single plant may produce >1000 seeds per year.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

8.02

(1)Harris (1961) found some dormancy in Anthoxanthum odoratum seeds. Most germination began the 4th week after sowing and ceased by the 8th week, but a few seeds germinated more than a year later. In experimental studies in England (Williams 1983a), A. odoratum seeds stored for 48 weeks in dry storage resulted in 86% germination. There is thus indirect evidence of seed dormancy, which may increase a seed's chance of being incorporated into the soil while still viable. For seeds sown on moist soil, however, emergence occurred rapidly (within three months). Those seeds that did not emerge within 10 months were not viable. Emergence was highest for seeds sown at a depth of 1 cm (75% viable) and decreased to 52% for seeds sown at a depth of 5 cm.

(1)http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/anthodo.pdf [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]

8.03

(1)The herbicide dalapon has proved to be effective for control of this grass. (2)CHEMICAL CONTROL A variety of herbicides are effective on Anthoxanthum, but they will also kill other, more desirable grasses. Dalapon (Dowpon) provides excellent control of Anthoxanthum odoratum (Fryer and Makepeace 1978). Dr. Jim McHenry (pers. comm. 1985), of the University of California, Davis, recommends it to control sweet vernal grass on Nature Conservancy lands. It will kill both annual and perennial grasses but is not as effective on broadleaf plants. Dalapon should be applied in the spring when there is maximum top growth, prior to the appearance of the seed head. Apply the herbicide at the rate of 10 lbs/100 gal of water along with one quart of surfactant. Surfactants lower the surface tension of the spray and increase the herbicide's effectiveness. Dalapon is cleared for use on right-of-ways and grazing lands (if spot treated). Dalapon has low toxicity to animals and fish and breaks down rapidly and completely in soils (Beste 1983). Herbicides can be applied uniformly over an area for large infestations or by spot spraying individuals plants. Due to the nonselective nature of Dalapon, spot spraying is recommended for most purposes. Dr. McHenry recommends using a flat-fan nozzle (Spraying Systems Co. #8003 or #8004 nozzle tip) rather than the cone nozzles available on most garden sprayers. Cone sprayers produce greater atomization of the chemicals and increase the chance of unwanted drift. Spraying should be done to dry plants on calm days since dew or rain will dilute the herbicide, reducing its effectiveness. When spraying large areas, a horizontal boom (6-8 feet long) made from aluminum tubing will improve herbicide coverage.

(1)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. (2)http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/anthodo.pdf [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]

8.04

(1)Its cover increases after fire, but this increase appears to be the result of reduced competition rather than stimulation. (2)Manual control includes hand pulling of individual plants and mowing.

(1)Smith, C.W. 1985. Impact of alien plants on Hawai`i's native biota. Pp.180-250. In C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott (eds.). Hawai`i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and management. Univ. Hawai`i Coop. Natl. Park Resour. Stud. Unit. Honolulu: Univ. Hawai`i Pr. (2)Weber, E. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

8.05

(1)BIOLOGICAL CONTROL According to Charles Turner of the USDA Biocontrol Lab in Albany, California (pers. comm. 1985), grass species such as Anthoxanthum odoratum present a major problem for biocontrol techniques. The lack of known host-specific insect or disease pest controls means that more experimenting must be done. Such experiments could damage ecologically or agriculturally important grass species. In addition, sweet vernal grass is not considered an undesirable plant everywhere. Keeping insects or pathogens within property boundaries is impossible.

(1)http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/anthodo.pdf [Accessed 13 Aug 2008]