Urochloa mutica (Forssk.) T.Q. Nguyen, Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

Reject, score: 14 (Go to the risk assessment (Australia))
High risk, score: 12 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific))

Other Latin names:  Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf; Brachiaria purpurascens Henr.; Panicum barbinode Trin.; Panicum guadeloupense Steudel; Panicum muticum Forssk.; Panicum purpurascens Raddi

Common name(s): [more details]

English: California grass, Dutch grass, Mauritius grass, Para grass, Scotch grass, buffalo grass, giant couch, tall panicum, water grass

French: herbe borer, herbe de Guinée, herbe de Para

Maori (Cook Islands): mauku puakatoro

Spanish: gramalote, hierba de Pará, pasto Pará, zacuti Para

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Perennial; culms decumbent and rooting at base, 2-5 m long, the nodes densely villous; sheaths mostly longer than internodes, papillose or papillose-pilose, densely short-puberulent on collar; ligule a row of hairs about 1 mm long; blades 10-30 cm long, 10-15 mm wide, acuminate, glabrous on both surfaces, margins scabrous; inflorescences 10-25 cm long, about half as broad, lowermost branches compound, upper simple, branchlets and upper branches bearing spikelets solitary or in 2's or 3's on 1 side of a flattened rachis, this, like main axis, angled, scabrous on angles; spikelets glabrous, pointed, about 3 mm long; first glume acute, about 1 mm long, not clasping at base; second glume and sterile lemma equal, the latter subtending a hyaline palea; fertile lemma slightly shorter, obtuse, minutely transversely rugose"  (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; pp. 868-869).

"Culms decumbent, rooting at the base, up to 2.4 m high, with densely hairy nodes, hairy sheaths, blades 10-30 cm long and 13 mm wide, glabrous.  Panicle up to 30 cm long, with numerous (about 10) spreading branches, 2.5-10 cm long; spikelets up to 4.5 mm long, elliptic, sometimes purplish rachis more or less flat, herbaceous, ribbon-like.  First glume 1/3-1/2 as long as the spikelet.  Fruit with minute transverse grooves (Stone, 1970; pp. 203-204).

Description from GrassBase.

Habitat/ecology:  "Wet fields, ditches and gullies between sea level and 700 m. This perennial grass can reach heights of 2 m. It forms dense monotypic stands by layering from trailing stems. It will overgrow most shrubs and trees in its habitat. It has mild allelopathic activity (Chou and Young 1975).  Fire is rare in its habitat but the dense stands rapidly regenerate from any damage that they suffer" (Smith, 1985; p. 186). 

Invasive to 5000 feet in New Guinea (Henty, 1969; p. 39).  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized and usually forming dense mats in areas of high soil moisture or nearby open water, such as along stream banks, drainage ditches, and roadsides, as well as other disturbed sites, 0-1,060 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1504).  In Fiji, "widespread from sea level to about 800 m, especially in the wet zones, where it occurs in pastures and cultivated fields, along roadsides, on river banks, in swamps, in clearings, and along forest trails" (Smith, 1979; p. 329). In New Caledonia, "maintenant largement dispersé et souvent abondant en stations plus ou moins humides" (MacKee, 1994; p. 57).

"Interferes with stream flow and poses a nuisance to marine navigation when rafts of the grass float out to sea. Forms monotypic stands in forest openings and marshes, displacing native plants and destroying bird habitats."  (Motooka et al., 2003). "In moist or wet ground, sometimes growing in water, throughout tropical and subtropical America, usually at low altitudes; cultivated for forage" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; pp. 868-869).  In Australia, "wet or seasonally flooded areas in disturbed sites including flood plains, drainage lines and creek banks.  Can form dense floating mats 1-2 m thick over water bodies.  Can tolerate water depths up to 1 m.  A highly invasive grass that spreads vigorously, choking out native species and hindering re-establishment of more desirable species.  Will tolerate brackish water and is relatively shade tolerant." (Smith, 2002; p. 80).

Propagation:  Man is the principal dispersal agent (as a pasture grass). Spreads by seed, runners and cuttings; rarely flowers. "Also by floodwaters and birds" (Smith, 2002; p. 80).  "The plant reproduces and spreads mainly by stem fragments; seed production is low"  (Weber, 2003; p. 446).

Native range:  "Probably a native of Africa, but first described from Brazilian specimens.  It is now cultivated rather widely"  (Stone, 1970; pp. 203-204).  "A native or northern Africa, this grass was probably established in tropical America in the early days of trading" (Smith, 1979; p. 329).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 44)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 32)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1993) (voucher ID: PTBG 26891) Taxon name on voucher: Urochloa mutica
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 52)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1986) (voucher ID: BISH 572382) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 588367) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 588986) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 664868) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mbatiki Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 329)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 329) Voucher cited: DA 8751
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 31655) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 329) Vouchers cited: DA 8212, DA 8251, DA 8572, DA 8663, DA 8094, Meebold 17097, DA 8428, Gillespie 3461, Bryan 216, DA 3502, DA 3517, DA 8620
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1955) (voucher ID: BISH 31656) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 700002) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 700003) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1932) (voucher ID: BISH 700004) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 700005) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 700006) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1945) (voucher ID: BISH 700007) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 700009) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2013)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: J. Florence 8457 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1987) (voucher ID: BISH 540436) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 330) Vouchers cited: Grant 4170, Florence 3508, Fosberg & Sachet 63226
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: J. Florence 10378 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491711) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 588738) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 330) Vouchers cited: Grant 4170, Florence 2835, Florence 2885
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 2885 (PAP), J. Florence 3183 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491185) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491726) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 492086) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1981) (voucher ID: PTBG 38252) Taxon name on voucher: Urochloa mutica (Forssk.) T. Q. Nguyen
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Naturalisée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 203-204) Voucher cited: Stone 4095 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 52)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1918) (voucher ID: BISH 125937) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1911) (voucher ID: BISH 125938) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1918) (voucher ID: BISH 125940) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 125941) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 588393) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 588985) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 649487) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 699999) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 1000209) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1504)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1504)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1504)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1504)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 20) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H110123 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1504)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak, Eniwetok) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1976) (voucher ID: BISH 410766) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 3) "Uncommon; ruderal areas".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Maloelap Atoll		Imada, Clyde (2006)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Wotje (Wõjjã) Atoll	introduced	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2009) (p. 3) Voucher cited: Vander Velde 0518200904
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 380) Largement dispersée et souvent abondante en stations plus ou moins humides.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 57) Voucher cited: cribs 832
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (p. 163)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. (1996) (p. 461)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 594) "Long-abandoned orchard on terraces above The Farm".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 234) Vouchers cited: CHR 168778, CHR 168807, CHR 168808
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 46)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9659 (BISH) "Cultivated as a forage grass".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 48)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 52)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 87)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3076) Taxon name on voucher: Panicum muticum Forsk.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3107) Taxon name on voucher: Panicum muticum Forsk.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 52)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 83)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Malakal (Ngemelachel) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 83)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 432334) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 432407) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced	Henty, E. E. (1969) (p. 39) Suitable from sea level to 5000 ft.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 191-194)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 417774) Taxon name on voucher: Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 52)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 71)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 58)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 51)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 97) Vouchers cited: Soakai 644, Soakai 786
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 65)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1504)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island		Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (p. 24) Not seen in this survey, probably eradicated.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 89)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 46)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 80)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (p. 80)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Queensland Herbarium (2002) (p. 2) As Brachiaria mutica
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 191-194)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Costa Rica (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 52)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 328) As Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 191-194)
Japan Japan	Japan	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 192) As Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 191-194)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 193-195)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 89) Naturalised
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Colombia	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 193-195)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 193-195)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Perú (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 193-195)
Taiwan Taiwan Island	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 191-194)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 191-194)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (Oregon)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 191-194)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 106) Naturalized
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Naturalisé"
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 193-195)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	Invasive Species Specialist Group (2017)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)

Comments:  Planting of this species is prohibited in Miami-Dade County, Florida (U.S.) (Miami-Dade County Dept. of Planning and Zoning, 2010).

Control: 

Physical:  "Small infestations can be removed manually or by mechanical harvesters"  (Weber, 2003; p. 446).

Chemical: "A weed in wet open forests and aquatic environments.  Drizzle applications of glyphosate at 1 lb/acre with a good surfactant cleared Wailoa Pond in Hilo (Robert Nishimoto, Division of Aquatic Resources, Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources) and Hanamā‘ulu Stream on Kaua‘i. A solution of 1-1.5% glyphosate product in water sprayed to wet the foliage provided control on Maui (Hank Oppenheimer, Maui Pine)"  (Motooka et al 2003).