Tribulus cistoides L., Zygophyllaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

English: burrnut, caltrop, caltrops, carpet weed, false puncture vine, goat's head, Jamaican feverplant, kill Bukra, Kingston buttercup, large yellow caltrop, pagode, puncture vine, turkey blossum

Hawaiian: nohu, nohunohu

I-Kiribati: te maukinikini

Spanish: abrojo, cabeza de arriero, cacho de chivo, herbe soleil, herse, pourpier-bord de mer, yerba de araña

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Prostrate trailing subshrub, branches subascending; leaves paripinnate, leaflets about 8 pairs, oblong; silky-pubescent, about 1 cm long; stipules falcate acuminate; flowers solitary, yellow, sepals 5, silky; petals 5, obovate; stamens 10, on base of annular 10-lobed disc, 5 longer ones opposite the petals, 5 shorter ones each with a dorsal gland; ovary sessile, hirsute, style short, stigmas 5; fruit of horned woody cocci, tuberculate, pubescent, partitioned within, compartments 1-seeded" (Stone, 1970; p. 349).

Habitat/ecology:  "It is mostly a plant of dry, warm, coastal areas and is found on sand beaches and coastal dunes" (Holm et al., 1977; p. 467).

In Hawai‘i, "occurring in coastal habitats, 0-50 (-100) m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1343-1344). Arid lowlands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 265). In New Guinea, "a weed of roadsides, troublesome to unshod pedestrians; dangerous to livestock" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 162). In New Caledonia, "répandu et bien établi près du littoral, en bord de routes et en terrains vagues. Pourrait être indigène mais ne semble pas être signalé avant 1850" (MacKee, 1994; p. 143).

Propagation:  Seed. "Fruit is dispersed by adhering to the feet of animals and humans or vehicle and bicycle tyres. Fruit also sticks to sheep wool and is often found in hay, straw and manure" (Smith, 2002; pp. 54-55).

Native range:  "A native of tropical America" (Holm et al., 1977; p. 467).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Darwin Islands	Darwin Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Española Group	Española Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Fernandina Group	Fernandina Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Genovesa Group	Genovesa Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Darwin	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Ecuador	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Pinta Group	Pinta Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Baltra Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Daphne Mayor Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Eden Islet	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Plaza Norte Islet	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Plaza Sur Islet	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Punta Bowditch Norte Islet	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Seymour Norte Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Albany Islet	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Bainbridge #3 Rock	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Bainbridge #4 Rock	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Bainbridge #6 Rock	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Beagle Oeste Rock	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Rábida Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Santiago Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hatutu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 601612) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 349)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 122)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	French Frigate Shoals	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Gardner Pinnacles		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 51306) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kure Atoll	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Laysan Island	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lehua Island	native	Wood, K. R./LeGrande, Maya (2006) (p. 29) Vouchers cited: K.R. Wood et al. 9304 (BISH, PTBG, US), K.R. Wood 11536 (BISH, PTBG, US)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lisianski Island	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Necker Island	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Nihoa Island	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Pearl and Hermes Reef	native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
Kiribati Line Islands	Caroline Atoll	native	Kepler, Angela K./Kepler, Cameron B. (1994) (p. 52)
Kiribati Line Islands	Caroline Atoll		Clapp, R. B./Sibley, F. C. (1971) (p. 7) Voucher cited: Long 3245 (HAW)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll		Chock, Alvin K./Hamilton, Jr., Dean C. (1962) (p. 5) Vouchers cited: Bergman 23, Hamilton 13, RAF Nat. Hist. Soc. (Gallagher) (BISH)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll	native	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 25)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 602689) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Line Islands	Malden Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 76243) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Line Islands	Starbuck Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 51303) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Line Islands	Starbuck Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 76242) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Enderbury Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 53) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & Stoddart 54750 (US, HAW, K), Fosberg 55709 (US, BISH, K)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 53) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & Stoddart 54716 (US, HAW, K)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	native	Luomala, Katharine (1951) (p. 173)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Manra (Sydney) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 53) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & Stoddart 54857 (US, HAW, K), Bryan s.n., Bryan 37, Woodward 2564 (US), Long 2537 (US), Long & Woodward 2574 (US), Arundel 52 (K)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Manra (Sydney) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 76240) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	McKean Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 53) Long 2044 (US), Long 2033 (US), Long 2441 (US), Fosberg 55789 (US, BISH, K)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	McKean Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 76238) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	McKean Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 76239) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	McKean Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 462627) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Nikumaroro (Gardner) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 53) Long 2496 (US), Fosberg 55781 (US, BISH, K)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Orona (Hull) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (p. 53) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & Stoddart 54790 (US, HAW, K)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 122)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	native	St. John, Harold (1960) (p. 329) Voucher cited: Fosberg 24403
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	possibly introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 12) "Perhaps introduced accidentally with military equipment". Voucher cited: Fosberg 24403 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 38813) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
New Caledonia Îles Chesterfield	Îles Chesterfield	possibly native invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 143) Voucher cited: Kusser in MacKee 34003
New Caledonia Récifs D'Entrecasteaux (D'Entrecasteaux Reefs)	Île Surprise	possibly native invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 143) Voucher cited: Blanchon 428 (NOU)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Maré	possibly native invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 143) Voucher cited: Däniker 2812
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Ouvéa (Ouvea Atoll)	possibly native invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 143) Vouchers cited: Däniker 1922, Schmid 2366 (NOU)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Walpole	possibly native invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 143) Voucher cited: Cherrier in MacKee 43792
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	native	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (p. 579)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	possibly native invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 143) Vouchers cited: Pancher s.n., Vieillard 271, Däniker 1185, Baumann 5169, MacKee 1985, Suprin 525 (NOU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 449718) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	possibly native invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 143) Voucher cited: MacKee 15774
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (p. 579)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, Barbara (year unknown)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea offshore islands	Long Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 51304) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Baker Island	Baker Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 51305) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Baker Island	Baker Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1935) (voucher ID: BISH 637015) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Howland Island	Howland Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 51307) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Howland Island	Howland Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1935) (voucher ID: BISH 637000) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Jarvis Island	Jarvis Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 51308) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Jarvis Island	Jarvis Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1935) (voucher ID: BISH 637019) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island		Christophersen, E. (1931) (p. 13) Vouchers cited: Pollock 1, Pollock 4
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	native	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 56)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	native invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1343-1344)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 122)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 10) Vouchers cited: Sachet 900 (US), McFarlane 1 (US)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1993) (voucher ID: BISH 633240) Taxon name on voucher: Tribulus cistoides L.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	native	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (pp. 54-55)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	native	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (pp. 54-55)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 467)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2005)

Additional information:  Information on this prohibited species from the Miami-Dade County [Florida] web site.

Additional online information about Tribulus cistoides is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Tribulus cistoides may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1935. Voucher specimen #BISH 637000 (A.F.Judd 154).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1935. Voucher specimen #BISH 637015 (A.F.Judd 109).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1935. Voucher specimen #BISH 637019 (A.F.Judd 54).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 38813 (Fosberg, F.R. 24403).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 449718 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 1568).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 51305 (Long, C.R. 2156).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 51306 (Long, C.R. 2496).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 51307 (Long, C.R. 2347).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 51308 (Long, C.R. 2692).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 76238 (Long, C.R. 2033).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 76239 (Long, C.R. 2441).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 76240 (Long, C.R. 2537).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1964. Voucher specimen #BISH 462627 (Long, C.R. 2044).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 51303 (Long, C.R. 3313).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 51304 (Long, C.R. 3245).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 76242 (Long, C.R. 3297).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 76243 (Long, C.R. 3355).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 602689 (Wester, L. 2146).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 601612 (J.Florence 9388).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1993. Voucher specimen #BISH 633240 (E.J.Funk Wake 7).

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chock, Alvin K./Hamilton, Jr., Dean C. 1962. Plants of Christmas Island. Atoll Res. Bull. 90. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 7 pp.

Christophersen, E. 1931. Vascular plants of Johnston and Wake Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum. Occasional Paper 9:1-20.

Clapp, R. B./Sibley, F. C. 1971. Notes on the vascular flora and terrestrial vertebrates of Caroline Atoll, Southern Line Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 145. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 18 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 393. 60 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. 1977. The world’s worst weeds: distribution and biology. East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii. 609 pp.

Kepler, Angela K./Kepler, Cameron B. 1994. The natural history of the Caroline Atoll, Southern Line Islands. Part I. History, physiography, botany, and isle discriptions. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 397. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 225 pp.

Luomala, Katharine. 1951. Plants of Canton Island, Phoenix Islands. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 20(11):157-174.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

Smith, Nicholas M. 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide. Environment Centre NT, Inc. 112 pp.

St. John, Harold. 1960. Flora of Eniwetok Atoll. Pacific Science 14(4):313-336.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. 2005. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, Barbara. 0. Barbara Waterhouse, pers. com.

Wester, Lyndon. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reseach Bulletin 287:1-38.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Wood, K. R./LeGrande, Maya. 2006. An annotated checklist and new island records of flowering plants from Lehua Islet, Ni‘ihau, Hawai‘i. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2004-2005. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 87:19-29.