Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.Schum., Apocynaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 9 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold; Thevetia nerifolia Juss. ex Steud.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: huang hua jia zhu tao

Chuukese: kanneeta, koneta

English: be still tree, foreigner's tree, lucky nut, yellow oleander

French: oléandre jaune

Hawaiian: nohomālie

Japanese: kibana-kyotikuto

Maori (Cook Islands): pua, venevene, venevene

Spanish: adelfa amarilla, cabalonga, chirca, jacapa

Tahitian: piti, piti, poupou

Ulithian: irelepsech

Habit:  tree

Description:  "Arborescent shrub; leaves linear-lanceolate, acute or subobtuse, acute at base, coriaceous, dark green somewhat glossy above, paler beneath, petiole very short (3 mm), blade 8-14 cm long, less than 1 cm wide, glabrous; cymes many-flowered; calyx 1-1.3 cm long, lobes acute-acuminate; corolla 5-7 cm long, yellow (rarely light orange); fruit a juicy black drupe 4-5.5 cm broad" (Stone, 1970; p. 486).

Habitat/ecology:  Prefers fertile, well-drained soils, but can survive on most soils (Csurhes and Edwards, 1998; p. 200).  Can be invasive on dryer sites.  In Fiji, "freely naturalized in pastures, under coconuts, etc."  (Smith, 1988; p. 88).  In Hawai‘i, "commonly grown as an ornamental since its introduction ca. 1900, now naturalized in disturbed mesic sites"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 215). In New Caledonia, "commun dans les jardins, surtout à Nouméa" (MacKee, 1994; pp. 16-17). Arid lowlands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 60).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Peru, now widely cultivated as an ornamental.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1925) (voucher ID: BISH 122565) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Chile (offshore islands) Rapa Nui (Easter) Island	Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua)	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2008) (p. 48)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 37) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31425 (US), Falanruw 2156 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 37) Vouchers cited: Anderson 598 (US, BISH, Fo, NY, L), Fosberg 31347 (US), Moore 358 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 122569) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 635214) Taxon name on voucher: Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.Schum.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 1000065) Taxon name on voucher: Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.Schum.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 89)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 99)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 72)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1929) (voucher ID: BISH 122563) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) Observed in survey, herbarium record pending.
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Puluwat (Pwonowót) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. (1989) (p. 56) Voucher cited: Manner & Mallon 242 (GUAM)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 122572) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. 27)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 12)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 91)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 70) Voucher cited: M. Takamatsu 758 (BISH)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 122571) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 122573) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 586781) Taxon name on voucher: Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.Schum.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kambara Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (p. 88) Voucher cited: Smith 1303
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kambara Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1934) (voucher ID: BISH 122567) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (p. 88) Voucher cited: Bierhorst F184
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (p. 88) Vouchers cited: H.B.R. Parham 166, Smith 9617
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 122566) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 8)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	University of California (2006) "Common cultivated plant".
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 35-36) Voucher cited: Moore 348
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced cultivated	Grant, Martin Lawrence;Fosberg, F. Raymond/Smith, Howard M. (1974) (pp. 52-53) Vouchers cited: Moore 348 (BISH, MIN), Moore 749 (BISH)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 35-36) Vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 179, BRY 24828
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Grant, Martin Lawrence;Fosberg, F. Raymond/Smith, Howard M. (1974) (pp. 52-53) Vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 179 (BISH, UC), Grant 4429 (BISH, MIN)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2399 (PAP); fa. aurantiaca H. St. John: J. Florence 2409 (PAP) Ornementale commune. Naturalisée.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tetiaroa Atoll	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M.-H./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 64)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 486) Voucher cited: Stone 5145 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 122568) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 215)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2011) (p. 5) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & J. Penniman H10091 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 215)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wysong, Michael/Hughes, Guy/Wood, K. R. (2007) (p. 2) Voucher cited: Wysong 800 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 215)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 98) Not seen on this survey and may no longer be present.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 64)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 94) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 58704 (US), Thaman & Manner 78 (SUVA)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 16-17) Vouchers cited: MacKee 9935, MacKee 27931, MacKee 29950
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 46) Vouchers cited: CHR 169907, CHR 169908
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 7)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 97) Voucher cited: Yuncker 9905 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 13) Naturalizing around parent trees.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 86)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Kayangel (Ngcheangel) Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 8)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 219)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 83)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 20)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 81742) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 122570) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 428472) Taxon name on voucher: Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1968) (voucher ID: BNM 175) Taxon name on voucher: Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Merr.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 83)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 83)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 91)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 20)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	introduced invasive	Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 445) Around houses and at roadsides.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced cultivated	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 331) Widely scattered in cultivation as an ornamental plant in the larger towns.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 12)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 12)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Guadalcanal Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1986) (voucher ID: BISH 509026) Taxon name on voucher: Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.Schum.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 114)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka and Foa Islands	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 75)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 222) "Occasional in villages".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 56)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 69)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced cultivated	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 58)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Starr, Forest/Martz, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2002) (p. 17) Voucher cited: Starr & Martz 990511-1 (BISH) Reproducing from suckers.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced cultivated	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-14)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 200)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Cultivated for medicine and as an ornamental. Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan.
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 213)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 200) Timor
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	probably native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 86) Cultivated only
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Cultivated for medicine and as an ornamental.

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Maldives Maldive Islands	Malè Atoll		Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 30)

Comments:  "All parts of this plant are very poisonous, especially the sap and the oily seeds; hence, no doubt, the name 'be-still' tree, the stillness implied being the ultimate stillness" (Stone, 1970; p. 486).

A significant weed species in Timor (Wilson, cited in Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 200).

Additional information:
Additional online information about Thevetia peruviana is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Thevetia peruviana as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Thevetia peruviana may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1968. Voucher specimen #BNM175(Blackburn 279).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 122572 (Takamatsu, M. 210).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1925. Voucher specimen #BISH 122565 (Garber, D.W. 959).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1929. Voucher specimen #BISH 122563 (Wilder, G.P. 749).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1934. Voucher specimen #BISH 122567 (Smith, A.C. 1303).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 122571 (Takamatsu, M. 758).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 122568 (Fosberg, F.R. 25397).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 122573 (Lessa, W.A. 139).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 122569 (Anderson, D. 598).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 122570 (Fosberg, F.R. 32264).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 122566 (Smith, A.C. 9617).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 81742 (Blackburn, B.S. 279).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 428472 (Blackburn, F.R. 279).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 586781 (Fosberg, F.R. 60000).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 635214 (Herbst, D.R. 7234).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000065 (Herbst, D.R. 7234).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1986. Voucher specimen #BISH 509026 (Krauss, N.H. 3025).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 58. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 37 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Grant, Martin Lawrence;Fosberg, F. Raymond/Smith, Howard M. 1974. Partial flora of the Society Islands: Ericaceae to Apocynaceae. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 17. 85 pp.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Manner, H. I./Mallon, E. 1989. An Annotated list of the vascular plants of Pulawat Atoll. Micronesica 22:23-63.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

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