Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corrˆa, Malvaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk; score: 9 (Hawaii-Pacific Weed Risk Assessment for Thespesia populnea)

Other Latin names:  Hibiscus populneoides Roxb.; Hibiscus populneus L.; Thespesia macrophylla Blume; Thespesia populneoides (Roxb.) Kostel.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: Indian tuliptree, Pacific rosewood, Seychelles rosewood, bendytree, corktree, milo, porlia-tree, portia tree, portia-tree, seaside mahoe, tuliptree, umbrella-tree

Fijian: mulomulo

Hawaiian: milo

Niuean: milo

Pohnpeian: keleuand, pone

Samoan: milo

Unknown: 'amae, mi'o, milo, miro, mulomulo

Habit:  shrub/tree

Description:  "Small tree 5 - 20 m tall; Lvs alternate, heart shaped, the blade 8 - 20 cm wide, green and glossy above and without dense white pubescence below; Fls pale yellow fading pinkish, with deep red spots at base of petals, calyx cuplike, flower including calyx 5.5 - l6.5 cm long; Frt a globose, woody, brown capsule 3 cm across." (A Guide to Pacific Wetland Plants, p. 91)

"Evergreen shrubby tree, commonly to 13 m (41 ft) tall, with young branches minutely brown and scaly. Leaves alternate, simple, with petioiles 5-10 cm (2-4 in) long; blades entire, heart shaped (poplar-like), shiny dark green above, 5-20 cm (2-8 in) long, with usually 4 main veins from base. Flowers showy, hibiscus-like, single at upper leaf axils, to 8 cm (3 in) across; corolla yellow with a red center, turning maroon by nightfall; stamens united into a column shorter than petals. Fruit a leathery, flattened-globose, 5-parted capsule, 4 cm (1.5 in) wide, yellow turning black, peristeing unopened for a time and bearing several brown hairy seeds. ¶NOTE: May be confused with. . .[Hibiscus tiliaceus], but its leaves wider, with dense star-shaped hairs on lower surfaces. . . ." (ID &Biology of Nonnative Plants in FL's Nat. Areas (2nd ed.), p. 91)

See also A Tropical Garden Flora, p. 393; Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, pp. 424-426; (Smithsonian; Plants of Tonga, p. 184).

Habitat/ecology:  "Where native, this shrub grows at the edges of mangrove swamps, along tidal waters, usually on sandy and rocky coasts. The shrub is resistant to salt spray and strong winds. The shrub's spreadin lower branches leads to dense and impenetrable thickets that affect wildlife and crowd out native vegetation. Sometimes it forms forests of seedlings at the high-tide line of beaches. It produces large fruit crops and seeds are dispersed by tides and ocean currents. The small seeds can withstand extended period of floating and easily germinate in sand." (Invasive Plants of the World (Weber, 2003), p. 432)

"Seaside mahoe [PIER ed.: Thespesia populnea] grows in coastal areas in mangrove swamps, coastal hardwood forests, and along beaches of bays and inlets in southern Florida [U.S.A.]." Plants are very salt and wind tolerant, but their range is restricted by a lack of frost tolerance." (Invasive Plants (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007), p. 75)

"Found in the coastal strand, and sometimes along rivers at the interface of the mangrove-coastal interface and exposed to tidal influence." (A Guide to Pacific Wetland Plants, p. 91)

"Naturalized in Florida shore hammocks and sand dunes by 1933 (Small 1933), with spreading lower branches making 'almost impenetrable thickets' and large fruit crops continuously increasing its dense growth. Noted as commonly naturalized in coastal areas of south Florida and the Keys (Watkins 1970, Nelson 1994). Now a common constituent of mangrove communities and low wave-action beaches (E. F. Austin, Florida Atlantic University, 1995 pers. comm.). Sometimes forms forests of seedlings at the high-tide line (Nellis 1994). Also weedy in cultivated landscapes (Brosochat and Meerow 1991). . . . ¶. . . Has taken over beaches used by nesting sea turtles on St. John, Virgin Islands (Austin 1993). In Florida, documented as invading shell mounds, coastal berms, coastal strands, maritime hammocks, pine rocklands, and ruderal communities." (ID &Biology of Nonnative Plants in FL's Nat. Areas (2nd ed.), p. 91)

"Life history: "Cold-sensitive, restricted to areas with minimum temperatures above 1.7°C (35°F) (Broschat and Meerow 1991). Resists salt spray and wind action (Rao et al. 1983). Grows 'luxuriantly on shores of bays and inlets' (Small 1933); able to thrive in low silty land and coral sand berms (Nellis 1994). Shifts into the more efficient C₄-type of photosynthesis under saline conditions (Kotmire and Bhosale 1985). Flowers and fruits nearly year-round. Fruits and seeds buoyant, adapted to long-distance dispersal by tides and ocean currents (Nellis 1994)." (ID &Biology of Nonnative Plants in FL's Nat. Areas (2nd ed.), p. 91)

In Hawaii: "Milo [PIER ed.: Thespesia populnea] grows in low-lying protected coastal regions throughout the Islands. . . . Naturally adapted to heat, intense sunlight, and dryness. . . ." (A Tropical Garden Flora, p. 393)

In Fiji, "An often abundant tree 2-15 m. high, occurring at or near sea level along beaches and river banks, in coastal thickets, and on edges of mangrove swamps and of forest along rocky shores. . . . Flowers and fruits occur throughout the year." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 425)

On Ta'u (American Samoa), where the species is indigenous: "Occasional to common in littoral forest." (Botanical Inventory of Ta'u Unit, p. 53)

In Tonga: "seaside thicket"; "deep ravine"; "near sea"; "coastal forest...alt. 5 m."; "[f]requent near the shore throughout Tonga." (Plants of Tonga, pp. 184-185)

In Vanuatu, "Seashore. Tropical areas." (Remarkable plants of Vanuatu. p. 80.)

Propagation:  "Sometimes it forms forests of seedlings at the high-tide line of beaches. It produces large fruit crops and seeds are dispersed by tides and ocean currents. The small seeds can withstand extended period of floating and easily germinate in sand." (Invasive Plants of the World (Weber, 2003), p. 432)

"Sometimes forms forests of seedlings" and noted as having "large fruit crops continuously increasing its dense growth" in Florida (where it is an introduced invasive species). (ID &Biology of Nonnative Plants in FL's Nat. Areas (2nd ed.), p. 91)

"It [PIER ed.: Thespesia populnea] is easily grown from seed." (A Tropical Garden Flora, p. 393)

In Florida (U.S.A.), "[p]lants produce prolific fruit crops that float to new locations." (Invasive Plants (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007), p. 76)

Native range:  "Originating in India (Nelson 1996)" (ID &Biology of Nonnative Plants in FL's Nat. Areas (2nd ed.), p. 91)

Old World (Midway Atoll Vascular Plant Checklist, p. 57)

"Eastern Africa and southern Asia through Malesia to eastern Polynesia; Marshall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia" (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 58)

"A widespread coastal plant from tropical Africa to Henderson Island in easternmost Polynesia." (Sykes, 1970, p. 117)

"Pantropical and subtropical; cf. Fosberg and Sachet, 1972, for a list of many collections. About 30 Fijian collections are at hand, but the species is more abundant than this would suggest." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 426)

"Pantropic." (Plants of Tonga, p. 185)

Impacts and invaded habitats:  Invaded habitats: "Coastal hammocks and sand dunes, mangrove swamps." (Invasive Plants of the World (Weber, 2003), p. 432)

Thespesia populnea is cited as being naturalized and invasive in the Bahamas and Puerto Rico. (Invasive species threats in the Caribbean region, p. 125)

"Trees [PIER ed.: of Thespesia populnea] form dense thickets on hammocks, dunes, and among mangroves, displacing native plants and changing habitat for animals that rely on open beaches. Plants produce prolific fruit crops that float to new locations. Host to the cotton stainer bug, a pest of cotton." (Invasive Plants (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007), p. 76)

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Manu‘a Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 53) Vouchers cited: Garber 683; Whistler 7896
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Australia (offshore islands)	Warul Kawai (Deliverance Island)		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agiguan		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Bird (Sukimi) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Cook Islands Cook Islands	Cook Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Amwes Islet		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Chuuk Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Dublon (Tonowas) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia Mortlock Group	Saponoch Islet		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Garim Islet		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Beqa Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . MBENGGA: Raviravi, DA 6072."
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Pantropical and subtropical; cf. Fosberg and Sachet, 1972, for a list of many collections. About 30 Fijian collections are at hand, but the species is more abundant than this would suggest." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 426)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fulanga Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . FULANGA: Bryan 446." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . KANDAVU: Namalata isthmus region. Smith 180." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Koro Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . KORO: East coast, Smith 1092." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . LAKEMBA: Near Tumbou Jetty, Garnock-Jones 798." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lomaiviti Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Matuku Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . MATUKU: Bryan 238." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Moala Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . MOALA: Bryart 310." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . NGAU: Shore of Herald Bay, vicinity of Sawaieke, Smith 7899." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . OVALAlJ: Vicinity of Levuka, Gillespie 4504." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . TAVEUNI: Seemann 27." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . VANUA LEVU: Mathuata: Lambasa, Greenwood 526. Thakaundrove: Nasinu, Natewa Bay, DA 16834." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: . . . VANUA MBALAVU: Near Namalata Village, Garnock-Jones 1119." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	native	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 426) "Representative collections: VITI LEVU: Mba: Shores of Mba River near its mouth, Smith 4742. Nandronga & Navosa: Vatukarasa, DA 9286 (McKee 2856). Serua: Vicinity of Ngaloa, Degener 15106. Namosi: Mouth of Nambukavesi Creek, DA 13751 (DF193, BolaSS). Ra: Ellington, Parks20854. Tailevu; Londoni, Valemine 10. Rewa: Nukulau Island, Barclay 3431." (Flora Vitiensis nova, vol 2, p. 246)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
French Polynesia French Polynesia Islands	French Polynesia Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	native	Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (year unknown) "In the Hawaiian Islands, indigenous to Ni`ihau, Kaua`i, O`ahu, Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui, Hawai`i." (Smithsonian) For specimens, see: Smithsonian Botany Collections
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	native	Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (year unknown) "In the Hawaiian Islands, indigenous to Ni`ihau, Kaua`i, O`ahu, Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui, Hawai`i." (Smithsonian) For specimens, see: Smithsonian Botany Collections
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	native	Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (year unknown) "In the Hawaiian Islands, indigenous to Ni`ihau, Kaua`i, O`ahu, Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui, Hawai`i." (Smithsonian) For specimens, see: Smithsonian Botany Collections
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	native	Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (year unknown) "In the Hawaiian Islands, indigenous to Ni`ihau, Kaua`i, O`ahu, Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui, Hawai`i." (Smithsonian) For specimens, see: Smithsonian Botany Collections
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	native	Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (year unknown) "In the Hawaiian Islands, indigenous to Ni`ihau, Kaua`i, O`ahu, Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui, Hawai`i." (Smithsonian) For specimens, see: Smithsonian Botany Collections
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	native	Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (year unknown) "In the Hawaiian Islands, indigenous to Ni`ihau, Kaua`i, O`ahu, Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui, Hawai`i." (Smithsonian) For specimens, see: Smithsonian Botany Collections
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	native	Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (year unknown) "In the Hawaiian Islands, indigenous to Ni`ihau, Kaua`i, O`ahu, Moloka`i, Lana`i, Maui, Hawai`i." (Smithsonian) For specimens, see: Smithsonian Botany Collections
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Kiribati Kiribati	Kiribati (Republic of)	native	Permanent Agriculture Resources (2000) (p. 58) "Eastern Africa and southern Asia through Malesia to eastern Polynesia; Marshall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia" (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 58)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Marshall Islands Marshall Islands	Marshall Islands	native	Permanent Agriculture Resources (2000) (p. 58) "Eastern Africa and southern Asia through Malesia to eastern Polynesia; Marshall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia" (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 58)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Maloelap Atoll		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Niue Niue	Niue Island		Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 117) reference doesn't explicitly state that this species is native, but it seems from the range description included that it could be (pt@philipt.com/20171202). Vouchers cited: CHR 170315, CHR 170316, CHR 170317
Niue Niue	Niue Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Pacific Pacific	Polynesia	native	Permanent Agriculture Resources (2000) (p. 58) "Eastern Africa and southern Asia through Malesia to eastern Polynesia; Marshall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia" (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 58)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Palau Sonsorol Group	Sonsorol Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Henderson Island		Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 117) "A widespread coastal plant from tropical Africa to Henderson Island in easternmost Polynesia." (Sykes, 1970, p. 117)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Henderson Island	introduced	Sherley, Greg (ed.) (2000) (p. 60) reference implies that species is non-native; relevant text from ref: "Opportunities for island restoration . . . Henderson is described by Vickery (1994) as 'the world's only raised coral atoll that is virtually intact, and supports a suite of endemic plants and animals'. It has been designated a World Heritage Site. Pitcairn islanders visit Henderson to cut trees for carving, especially miro (Thespesia populnea). 'They are unlikely to agree to any conservation measures that do not provide them some benefits and thus, one key aspect of the management plan is the development of miro as a sustainable resource' (Vickery 1994)."
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Samoa Samoa	Samoa		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	New Georgia Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Pigeon Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Santa Cruz Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka Island	native	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 186) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15746; (presumed native by PIER)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	native	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 186) "Frequent near the shore throughout Tonga"; (presumed native by PIER)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	native	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 186) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15629; (presumed native by PIER)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	native	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 185) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15107; (presumed native by PIER)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Tafahi Island	native	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 186) Voucher cited: Hüaut;rlimann 586; (presumed native by PIER)
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Nanumea Atoll		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Baker Island	Baker Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Banks Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êfaté (Efete) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êpi Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Erromango Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Espirito Santo Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Maéwo Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Malakula (Malekula) Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Torres Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Ramon, Laurence/Sam, Chanel (2015) (p. 80)
Vanuatu Vanuatu	Maskelynes Islands		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Asia Asia	Asia (southern)	native	Permanent Agriculture Resources (2000) (p. 58) "Eastern Africa and southern Asia through Malesia to eastern Polynesia; Marshall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia" (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 58)
Asia Asia (Pacific rim)	Malesia	native	Permanent Agriculture Resources (2000) (p. 58) "Eastern Africa and southern Asia through Malesia to eastern Polynesia; Marshall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia" (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 58)
Australia Torres Strait Islands	Saibai Island		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Africa Africa	Africa (eastern)	native	Permanent Agriculture Resources (2000) (p. 58) "Eastern Africa and southern Asia through Malesia to eastern Polynesia; Marshall and Gilbert Islands in Micronesia" (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 58)
Caribbean Islands Caribbean Islands	Caribbean Islands	introduced	Weber, Ewald (2017) (p. 470) "Naturalized (species has established populations)" in some areas
Caribbean Islands Caribbean Islands	Montserrat		Consortium of Pacific Herbaria (2018)
India India	India (Republic of)	native	Langeland, K. A./Cherry, H. M./McCormick, C. M./Burks, K. A. Craddock (2008) (p. 91) "Originating in India (Nelson 1996)" (ID &Biology of Nonnative Plants in FL's Nat. Areas (2nd ed.), p. 91)
India India	India (Republic of)	native	Kaufman, Sylvan Ramsey/Kaufman, Wallace (2007) (p. 75) "It is native to India...." (p. 76)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced invasive cultivated	Weber, Ewald (2017) (p. 470) "Invasive (species has established populations and exerts negative impacts on other species or habitats)" (p. 470); "Seaside mahoe has become invasive in coastal habitats of southern Florida. It grows mostly as a shrub and forms dense thickets shading out native plants. The spreading lower branches make such thickets almost impenetrable. The plant resist salt apray and wind but is cold-sensitive. Fruits and seeds are buoyant and are dispersed over long distances by sea currents. Seedling sometimes form dense stands at the hight-tide line. The spread of seaside mahoe into natural mangrove forest is of particular concern, and the tree also invades tropical hammocks near the shore. Thickets on the coast change the habitat for animals depending on open beaches (Langeland and Craddock Burks, 1998; Kauifman and Kaufman, 2012)." (p. 470)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced invasive cultivated	Kaufman, Sylvan Ramsey/Kaufman, Wallace (2007) (p. 75) "Probably introduced in 1928 to Miami, Florida, as an ornamental plant." (p. 76)

Comments:  "Known from most of the Pacific Islands" (A Guide to Pacific Wetland Plants, p. 91); present in Hawaii (Alien plant invasions in native ecosystems in Hawaii, p. 103; Midway Atoll Vascular Plant Checklist, p. 57)

used as a timber-producing windbreak on Pacific islands (Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands, p. 218)

Herbarium specimens: NTBG

Control:  "T[hespesia] populnea is an aggressive colonizer in full sun but will not grow well in the shade of other trees (Friday and Okano, 2006). An integrated control programme could therefore include the creation of shade. For example, mechanical cutting and/or herbicide treatment should be followed by the sowing of grasses, trees or other vegetative cover." (CABI Invasive Species Compendium datasheet for Thespesia populnea (portia tree), accessed 30 October 2017)

"Specific control methods for this species are not available. Seedlings and saplings may be hand pulled or dug out, larger trees cut and the cut stumps treated with herbicide." (Invasive Plants of the World (Weber, 2003), p. 432)