Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze, Poaceae

Click on an image for links to BIGGER PICTURES

Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

Reject, score: 6 (Go to the risk assessment (Australia))
High risk, score: 15 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific))

Common name(s): [more details]

English: buffalo grass, crabgrass, St. Augustine grass

French: chiendent de boeuf, courre à terre, fransawi

Hawaiian: ‘aki‘aki haole, mānienie ‘aki‘aki, mānienie ‘aki‘aki haole, mānienie māhikihiki

Spanish: cañamazo, gramilla, gramillón, pasto colchón, pasto San Augustín, yerba de San Agustín

Tongan: sipilini

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Extensively creeping perennials, stolons with long internodes and short leafy branches; flowering culms ascending, 1-3 dm tall, branched, glabrous, compressed.  Leaves subopposite and equitant, except in the upper part of flowering branches; sheaths 3-6 cm long, compressed, keeled, pale at base, usually membranous on margins, sparsely villous at throat and on collar, otherwise glabrous; ligule ciliate, usually less than 0.5 mm long; blades firm, stiff, 3-30 cm long, 3-10 mm wide, upper surface scabrous, lower surface glabrous, apex rounded, more or less split.  Racemes 3-8 cm long, terminal and sometimes axillary; spikelets usually in pairs, rarely solitary or in threes; 5-6 mm long, pedicels 2-4 mm long, glabrous; first glume minute, scale-like, up to 1 mm long, second glume 5-6 mm long, 7-9-nerved; first lemma firm, 5-6 mm long, faintly 3-5-nerved; second lemma 4-5 mm long, faintly 5-7-nerved, abruptly acuminate; palea membranous, ovate, 4-5 mm long, chartaceous, glabrous, apex acute, margins inrolled.  Caryopsis dark brown, ovoid, plano-convex, ca. 1.5 mm long" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1598).

Description from World Grass Species.

Habitat/ecology:  "Uncommon in lawns and sunny waste places"  (Whistler, 1988; p. 57). In Hawai‘i, "commonly used as a lawn grass and naturalized on beaches, dunes and along roadsides, 0-1,300 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1598).  In Fiji, "it is regarded as a weed of roadsides, etc.  It is moderately common from sea level to about 850 m, on the upper part of beaches, on waste land, and along roadsides" (Smith, 1979; p. 354).  In Tonga, "presumable...introduced as a lawn grass, but it is becoming established"  (Yuncker, 1959; p. 57). In New Caledonia, "cultivé en gazons; souvent spontané en lieux humides" (MacKee, 1994; p. 63).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Both sides of the Atlantic (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1598).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced	Pickard, J. (1984) (p. 205)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 22) "Introduced as a pasture and lawn grass, and now common, especially on coastal cliffs and swards. Because of its invasive and blanketing habit is a threat to native species". Vouchers cited: L.M. Bingley 4 (K, NSW), R.D. Hoogland 8649 (CANB, NSW), A.C. Beauglehole 5458 (CANB, MEL)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 12) "Introduced as a pasture and lawn grass, and now common, especially on coastal cliffs and swards. Because of its invasive and blanketing habit is a threat to native species". Voucher cited: I. Robinson (NSW)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Sykes, Bill (year unknown)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	native	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	native	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	native	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kanathea Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Voucher cited: C. R. Turbet 1
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mango Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Voucher cited: DA 8916
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Vouchers cited: DA 5704, DA 8830
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Voucher cited: DA 10230
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Vouchers cited: DA 2103, DA 17332, Smith 9612, DA 3007, DA 1667
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., voucher cited: BRY 25437
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Fosberg 61025, Fosberg 62865
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY 26468a
French Polynesia Society Islands	Society Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., voucher cited: Florence 5272
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 108, Fosberg 62865
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai (Tubai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., voucher cited: Sachet 1991
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai (Tubai) Island	introduced invasive	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Sachet 1991 (US)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 61)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. (2000) (pp. 7-8) East Maui. Vouchers cited: Oppenheimer H99913 (BISH), Oppenheimer H99914 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. (2002) (p. 11) West Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H50005 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598) Voucher cited: Mann & Brigham 401 (BISH)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 17)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97) Presence not verified.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 61)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 63)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 63) Voucher cited: Cribs 1242
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Kermadec Islands	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 592) "Usually coastal, often on banks; margins of hot springs".
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (p. 178)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngerchong Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 108)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands	introduced	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 57)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 111)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 102) Vouchers cited: Lawrence 268, Soakai 280, Soakai 708
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 57) Voucher cited: Hürlimann 293
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 137)
Chile (continental) Chile	Chile (Republic of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 137)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 137)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 592) "Usually coastal, often on banks; margins of hot springs".
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. plate)

Control: 

Physical:  "Trailing stems at the edge of infestations can be plulled out.  Small patches are dug out, all rhizomes and creeping stems must be removed.  An effective control is solarization by covering infestations with plastic sheeting for 4-12 weeks".

Chemical:  "Herbicides used to control this grass include glyphosate, dalapon or 2,2-DPA"  (Weber, 2003; p. 422).

Additional information:  Photos and additional information at the Environment Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, web site of the Bay of Plenty Regional Council.

Additional online information about Stenotaphrum secundatum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Stenotaphrum secundatum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Edgar, E./Connor, H. 2000. Flora of New Zealand, vol. V: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press. .

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar. 1980. Grass weeds, vol. 1. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 142 pp. + plates.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. 2000. New plant records from Maui, O‘ahu, and the Hawai‘i Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1999. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 64:1-10.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. 2002. New plant records from the main Hawaiian Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 69:1-14.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Pickard, J. 1984. Exotic plants on Lord Howe Island: Distribution in space and time, 1853-1981. J. of Biogeography 11:181-208.

Sachet, M.-H. 1983. Botanique de l'ile de Tupai, Iles de la Societe. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 276. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 26 pp. + photos.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, Bill. 0. Bill Sykes, pers. com.

Sykes, W. R. 1977. Kermadec Islands flora: an annotated checklist. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 219, Wellington. 216 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Weber, Ewald. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 548 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wester, Lyndon. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reseach Bulletin 287:1-38.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.