Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze, Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

Reject, score: 6 (Go to the risk assessment (Australia))
High risk, score: 15 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific))

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: ce dun ye cao

English: buffalo grass, crabgrass, St. Augustine grass

French: chiendent de boeuf, courre à terre, fransawi

Hawaiian: ‘aki‘aki haole, mānienie ‘aki‘aki, mānienie ‘aki‘aki haole, mānienie māhikihiki

Spanish: cañamazo, gramilla, gramillón, pasto colchón, pasto San Augustín, yerba de San Agustín

Tongan: sipilini

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Extensively creeping perennials, stolons with long internodes and short leafy branches; flowering culms ascending, 1-3 dm tall, branched, glabrous, compressed.  Leaves subopposite and equitant, except in the upper part of flowering branches; sheaths 3-6 cm long, compressed, keeled, pale at base, usually membranous on margins, sparsely villous at throat and on collar, otherwise glabrous; ligule ciliate, usually less than 0.5 mm long; blades firm, stiff, 3-30 cm long, 3-10 mm wide, upper surface scabrous, lower surface glabrous, apex rounded, more or less split.  Racemes 3-8 cm long, terminal and sometimes axillary; spikelets usually in pairs, rarely solitary or in threes; 5-6 mm long, pedicels 2-4 mm long, glabrous; first glume minute, scale-like, up to 1 mm long, second glume 5-6 mm long, 7-9-nerved; first lemma firm, 5-6 mm long, faintly 3-5-nerved; second lemma 4-5 mm long, faintly 5-7-nerved, abruptly acuminate; palea membranous, ovate, 4-5 mm long, chartaceous, glabrous, apex acute, margins inrolled.  Caryopsis dark brown, ovoid, plano-convex, ca. 1.5 mm long" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1598).

Description from GrassBase.

Habitat/ecology:  "Wetland forests, coastal grass- and heathland, coastal dunes, disturbed sites.  Where native, this grass is found in moist swampy soils, motly near the coast.  The plant forms long stolons and stems root easily at the lower nodes.  It is frost tolerant and withstands salt spray.  Stems can climb 1-2 m tall and smother small shrubs.  Growth and regeneration of native shrubs and trees is impeded in areas invaded by this grass"  (Weber, 2003; p. 422).  "Uncommon in lawns and sunny waste places"  (Whistler, 1988; p. 57).

In Hawai‘i, "commonly used as a lawn grass and naturalized on beaches, dunes and along roadsides, 0-1,300 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1598).  In Fiji, "it is regarded as a weed of roadsides, etc.  It is moderately common from sea level to about 850 m, on the upper part of beaches, on waste land, and along roadsides" (Smith, 1979; p. 354).  In Tonga, "presumable...introduced as a lawn grass, but it is becoming established"  (Yuncker, 1959; p. 57). In New Caledonia, "cultivé en gazons; souvent spontané en lieux humides" (MacKee, 1994; p. 63).

Propagation:  "It usually does not set seeds where introduced.  It spreads quickly by means of vegetative growth, forming dense mats that eliminate all other species"  (Weber, 2003; p. 422).

Native range:  Both sides of the Atlantic (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1598).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1992) (voucher ID: PTBG 44176) Taxon name on voucher: Stenotaphrum secundatum
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced	Pickard, J. (1984) (p. 205)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 22) "Introduced as a pasture and lawn grass, and now common, especially on coastal cliffs and swards. Because of its invasive and blanketing habit is a threat to native species". Vouchers cited: L.M. Bingley 4 (K, NSW), R.D. Hoogland 8649 (CANB, NSW), A.C. Beauglehole 5458 (CANB, MEL)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 12) "Introduced as a pasture and lawn grass, and now common, especially on coastal cliffs and swards. Because of its invasive and blanketing habit is a threat to native species". Voucher cited: I. Robinson (NSW)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Sykes, Bill (year unknown)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	native	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	native	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	native	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kanathea Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Voucher cited: C. R. Turbet 1
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mango Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Voucher cited: DA 8916
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Vouchers cited: DA 5704, DA 8830
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Voucher cited: DA 10230
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 354) Vouchers cited: DA 2103, DA 17332, Smith 9612, DA 3007, DA 1667
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008) Voucher cited: K. R. Wood 10110 (BISH, P, PAP, PTBG, US)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 40186) Taxon name on voucher: Stenotaphrum secundatum
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008) Voucher cited: L. M. Dunn 217 (BISH, P, PAP, PTBG, US)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., voucher cited: BRY 25437
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 12075 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence & R. Tahuaitu 11670 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Fosberg 61025, Fosberg 62865
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: C.L. Cartier 145 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY 26468a
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., voucher cited: Florence 5272
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 108, Fosberg 62865
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: P. Birnbaum 44 (PAP). As Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (Thunberg) Brongn.: Voucher cited: J. Florence 2282 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tetiaroa Atoll	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J. Florence 3255 (PAP), J.-F. Butaud 287 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 346) Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., vouchers cited: Moore 543, BRY Stenotaphyrum dimidiatum (L.) Brogn., voucher cited: Sachet 1991
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai Island	introduced invasive	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Sachet 1991 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: M.-H. Sachet 1991 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Raro‘ia Atoll	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves/Fourdrigniez, Marie (2008) (p. 16) Adventice d'introduction européene.
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) As Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (Thunberg) Brongn. Voucher cited: J. Florence 5637 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rimatara (Rimitara) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 61)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. (2000) (pp. 7-8) East Maui. Vouchers cited: Oppenheimer H99913 (BISH), Oppenheimer H99914 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. (2002) (p. 11) West Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H50005 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598) Voucher cited: Mann & Brigham 401 (BISH)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 17)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97) Presence not verified.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 61)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 63)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 63) Voucher cited: Cribs 1242
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Kermadec Islands	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 592) "Usually coastal, often on banks; margins of hot springs".
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (p. 178)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngerchong Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 108)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngerchong Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 61)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands	introduced	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 57)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 111)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 102) Vouchers cited: Lawrence 268, Soakai 280, Soakai 708
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 57) Voucher cited: Hürlimann 293
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1598)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-14)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (pp. 12, 28) Stenotaphrum dimidiatum. Cette herbe est localement naturalisée en sous-bois de forêt secondaire et en bordure de piste.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 137)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Queensland Herbarium (2002) (p. 8)
Chile (continental) Chile	Chile (Republic of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 137)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 137)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 192)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 592) "Usually coastal, often on banks; margins of hot springs".
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 81) Naturalised
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. plate)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. Arthur (1996) (p. 25)

Control:  For additional control information see the information sheet from Weedbusters New Zealand.

Physical:  "Trailing stems at the edge of infestations can be pulled out.  Small patches are dug out, all rhizomes and creeping stems must be removed.  An effective control is solarization by covering infestations with plastic sheeting for 4-12 weeks".

Chemical:  "Herbicides used to control this grass include glyphosate, dalapon or 2,2-DPA"  (Weber, 2003; p. 422).

Additional information:
Photos and additional information at the Environment Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, web site of the Bay of Plenty Regional Council.
Information sheet from Weedbusters New Zealand.

Additional online information about Stenotaphrum secundatum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Stenotaphrum secundatum as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Stenotaphrum secundatum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Edgar, E./Connor, H. 2000. Flora of New Zealand, vol. V: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press. .

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar. 1980. Grass weeds, vol. 1. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 142 pp. + plates.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves/Fourdrigniez, Marie. 2008. Rapport de mission sur l'atoll de Raro‘ia (Tuamotu Centre) du 12 au 19 Octobre 2008: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire. de l'avifaune terrestre & marine, et recommandations de conservation et de gestion [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 24 pp.

Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro. 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research 8(2)/2004: 171-191.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, R. T. 2000. New plant records from Maui, O‘ahu, and the Hawai‘i Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1999. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 64:1-10.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. 2002. New plant records from the main Hawaiian Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 69:1-14.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Pickard, J. 1984. Exotic plants on Lord Howe Island: Distribution in space and time, 1853-1981. J. of Biogeography 11:181-208.

Queensland Herbarium. 2002. Invasive Naturalised Plants in Southeast Queensland, alphabetical by genus. Modified from: Batianoff, George N. and Butler, Don W. (2002). Assessment of Invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland. Appendix. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 27-34. 11 pp.

Sachet, M.-H. 1983. Botanique de l'ile de Tupai, Iles de la Societe. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 276. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 26 pp. + photos.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 227 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd. 2008. Botanical survey of Midway Atoll. Prepared for: United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 27 pp. plus appendices.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, Bill. 0. Bill Sykes, pers. com.

Sykes, W. R. 1977. Kermadec Islands flora: an annotated checklist. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 219, Wellington. 216 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2011. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Weber, Ewald. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 548 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wester, Lyndon. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reseach Bulletin 287:1-38.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Whistler, W. Arthur. 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica. 49 pp.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).