Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl, Verbenaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

English: bastard vervain, blue porterweed, blue snakeweed, Brazilian tea, Jamaica vervain, Jamaican snakeweed, joee, light blue snakeweed, nettleleaf vervain

French: herbe á chenille, herbe bleue, queue de rat

Hawaiian: oī, ōwī

I-Kiribati: te uti

Kwara‘ae: kinilio

Nauruan: edidubai, edidubaiy

Palauan: louch beluu

Spanish: golondrina, verbena azul, verbena manza

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Low, usually spreading annual or perennial herbs, 6-12 dm tall, sometimes somewhat woody toward base, often purplish throughout; stems dichotomously branched, sparsely pubescent or glabrate, nodes usually sparsely pilose.  Leaves often bluish or grayish when fresh, alternate or opposite, somewhat fleshy, oblong to elliptic or ovate, 2-9 (-12) cm long, 1.5-4 cm wide, upper surface glabrate, lower surface glabrous to strigose or strigillose on the veins and sometimes margins or sparsely hispidulous, margins serrate, the teeth angled forward, petioles 0.3-3.5 cm long.  Spikes stout and stiff, 15-50 cm long, glabrous, rachis stout and firm, up to 7 mm in diameter, the furrows conspicuously narrower than the rachis, bracts lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, 5-8 mm long; calyx completely embedded in rachis furrows, somewhat compressed, ca. 5 mm long, 2 of the teeth very reduced; corolla usually pale blue, 8-11 mm long." (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1322).

"Stachytarpheta jamaicensis hybridizes with S. cayennensis.  In general, the hybrids resemble S. jamaicensis more closely than S. cayennensis, but the corollas are darker in color than typical in S. jamaicensis, the habit is more erect, and the leaves are usually more ovate, darker green, and with more divergent teeth similar to S. cayennensis (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1322).

Similar species:  S. cayennensis.

Keys to the species

Wunderlin, 1998; p. 524:

S. jamaicensis: Floral bracts ovate-lanceolate, scariously margined mostly above the middle; leaf teeth obtuse.
S. cayennensis: Floral bracts lanceolate-subulate, scariously margined below the middle; leaf teeth acute.

Smith, 2002; pp. 42-43:

S. australis:  Lower leaf surfaces, rachis and calyx hairy; flowers pale blue or almost white.
S. cayennensis:  Lower leaf surfaces, rachis and calyx hairless; rachis slender 1-3 mm diameter; leaves membranous; flowers blue to almost white.
S. jamaicensis:  Lower leaf surface, rachis and calyx hairless; rachis stout, 3-5 mm diameter; leaves fleshy; flowers mauve, blue, violet or purple.

In the Pacific region, the flowers of S. jamaicensis generally seem to be of a more violet color rather than blue (photo).

Habitat/ecology:  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in open, dry, disturbed areas, 0-490 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1322). In New Guinea, "a weed of roadsides, waste land and pastures. Mostly at low altitudes but found to 700 m" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 159).  "In north and east Australia it is found in gardens, parks, vacant lots, and disturbed sites such as roadsides and building sites.  It is a weed of moist pastures as well as unirrigated improved pastures.  It also appears in unimproved pastures made up of mainly native plants.  Its seeds are moved about with hay and soil and may contaminate pasture seed supplies"  (Holm et al., 1997; p. 814).

Propagation:  "Usually spread intentionally as ornamental plants.  Seeds are also dispersed on vehicles, by the movement of soil in refuse from gardens and by rainwater.  In Queensland [Australia] they have been spread in fodder, hay and in contaminated pasture seed."  (Smith, 2002; pp. 42-43).

Native range:  Tropical and subtropical areas of the New World, widely naturalized (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1322).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 39) Voucher cited: Wisner 116
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 38) Vouchers cited: Anderson 612 (US, BISH, Fo), Fosberg 31368 (US), Moore 409 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 6)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 59)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 9)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 7)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. 6)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Lorence 7878 (PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. (2002) (p. 63)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 104) Voucher cited: Glassman 2424 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
French Polynesia French Polynesia Islands	French Polynesia Islands		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 66)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1322-1323)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1322-1323)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1322-1323)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1322-1323) Voucher cited: Munro 288 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1322-1323)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 26) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H110141 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1322-1323)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced invasive	Toyoda, Takeshi (2003) (p. 288) Naturalized
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Phoenix Islands	Kanton Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. (1994) (pp. 52-53) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & Stoddart 54895 (US, HAW, K)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Abemama Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 10) Voucher specimen collected: Imada 2003-143 (BISH 697755)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 10)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 10)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 12) "Occasional; in grassy and ruderal areas".
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (pp. 72-73) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31182, Fosberg 34121, Fosberg 48040, Herbst 8892, Herbst 8962, Herbst 8972, Herbst 9633, Whistler 11252
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 19) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31182 (US), Fosberg 34121 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 13) "Common; along road and in ruderal areas".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Likiep Atoll	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 19) Voucher cited: Fosberg 27028 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 132)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (pp. 206-207) Reported present in 1935 but not reported since.
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 39) Voucher cited: Sykes 1374
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 6)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 10)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 104)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 102)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 99)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 99)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 107)
Palau Rock Islands	Aulupse‘el Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 66)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 69, 79)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 39) Voucher cited: Whistler 2077
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 110)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 39) Voucher cited: Whistler 5019
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Tuvalu Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced invasive	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 59)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1322-1323)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 238)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 14) Voucher cited: McFarlane 22 (US)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (pp. 42-43)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Nicholas M. (2002) (pp. 42-43)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 812)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 69, 79)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 69, 79)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Negara Brunei Darussalam Brunei	Brunei (Negara Brunei Darussalam)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 69, 79)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 69, 79)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (p. 812)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	probably introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 69, 79)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 351-352)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 128)
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 38)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced	Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. (1971) (p. 157) Vouchers cited: Bourne 18 (K), Hume in 1883 (K), Stoddart 775 (K, US), Stoddart 880 (K, US), Rhyne 748 (US)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. (1991) (pp. 51-61) As S. indica
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Naturalisé"
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James (1997) (pp. 812, 814)

Comments:  A declared noxious weed in the Northern Territory and prohibited in Western Australia (Smith, 2002; pp. 42-43).

S. jamaicensis is quite prevalent at the airport and on roadsides on Kosrae; S. cayennensis is absent (Space et al., 2000).

Control: 

Chemical: Probably similar to control for S. cayennensis: "Probably controlled by translocated herbicides, including 2,4-D and glyphosate at standard rates.  It should be susceptible to wick-wiping with glyphosate"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 30).

Additional information:  Additional online information about Stachytarpheta jamaicensis is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Stachytarpheta jamaicensis may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Stoddart, D. R. 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 393. 60 pp.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Doll, Jerry/Holm, Eric/Pancho, Jaun/Herberger, James. 1997. World weeds: natural histories and distribution. John Wiley & Sons. 1129 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. 2002. Invasive/weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. In: Invasive species and their management. Micronesica Suppl. 6:61-65.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. 1991. Effects of alien plant invasions on native vegetation remnants on La Reunion (Mascarenes Islands, Indian Ocean). Environmental Conservation 18 (1):51-61.

Oppenheimer, Hank L. 2003. New plant records from Maui and Hawai‘i Counties. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2001-2002. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 73:3-30.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Smith, Nicholas M. 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide. Environment Centre NT, Inc. 112 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane. 2000. Invasive plant species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 31 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 41 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. 2000. Invasive plant species on Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 43 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. 1971. Geography and ecology of Diego Garcia Atoll, Chagos Archipelago. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 149. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 237 pp.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

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