Spermacoce assurgens Ruiz & Pav., Rubiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Borreria laevis sensu various authors.

Common name(s): [more details]

English: buttonweed, woodland false buttonweed

Palauan: okula beluu

Spanish: botoncillo, hierba de toro, tabaquillo

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Annual or short-lived perennial herbs; stems often purple-tinged, erect or sprawling, 3-10 dm long, glabrous or sparsely retrorsely puberulent in lines on the angles.  Leaves often purple-tinged, opposite, narrowly elliptic, elliptic-lanceolate, or ovate, 1-7 cm long, 0.4-3 cm wide, glabrous except puberulent near margins, giving a slightly scabrid texture, apex acute to attenuate-acute, base rounded to cuneate, petioles 2-4 mm long, stipules 2-3 mm long, with 5-7 slender, unequal setae 2-5 mm long, stipules of flower-bearing nodes with numerous setae.  Flowers numerous in axillary and terminal, dense, sessile clusters, stipule-derived bracteoles with setae 2-3 mm long; hypanthium obconical, 2-2.5 mm long; calyx lobes deltate, ca. 0.6 mm long, ciliate, separated by a fringe; corolla white or lobes tinged pink, 2.4-2.6 mm long.  Fruit ellipsoid or obovoid-fusiform, 2-4 mm long, pubescent in upper part, dehiscent, the valves bifid, falling completely away. Seeds dull dark brown, oblong-ellipsoid, 1.5-2.5 mm long, transversely sulcate" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1172-1173).

Habitat/ecology:  "Along trails, in clearings, and in uncrowded grassy areas throughout much of tropical America from sea level to 1,500 m or higher where sufficient moisture is available; a common weed in many areas" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; pp. 424-425). "A weed of gardens, lawns, roadsides and disturbed areas. Weed of plantations, cultivation and pastures. Tolerant of moist and dry climates.  Locally abundant, 0-1200 m altitude" (Waterhouse & Mitchell, 1998; pp. 87-88).

In Hawai‘i, "naturalized and often common in urban areas, along roadsides, and other low elevation disturbed sites" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1172-1173).  In Fiji, "occurring between sea level and 850 m elevation as an abundantly naturalized weed on grassy slopes, along roadsides, and in villages, canefields, and gardens" (Smith, 1988; pp. 373-374).  "Common in croplands and disturbed places" (Whistler, 1988; p. 35). In Papua New Guinea, "a common and widespread plant of grassland, stream sides, forest clearings and roadsides; a weed of gardens and pasture. From low altittudes to at least 1200 m" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 143). In Tonga, "rather frequent as a weed in waste areas and clearings" (Yuncker, 1959; p. 259). In New Caledonia, "sous ces noms sont citées des plantes répandues comme mauvaises herbes de cultures, pelouses et terrains vagues" (MacKee, 1994; p. 123).

Propagation:  "Seeds dispersed by water, slashing equipment, cultivation" (Waterhouse & Mitchell, 1998; pp. 87-88).

Native range:  Florida south to Central and South America and the West Indies, now widely naturalized (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1172-1173).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Whistler 3482
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Whistler 1308
American Samoa Swain's Island	Swain's Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1983) (p. 14) Vouchers cited: Whistler 3376, Bryan s.n.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 66)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 66)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Fernandina Group	Fernandina Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Alcedo	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Cerro Azul	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Albany Islet	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Santiago Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Wolf Islands	Wolf Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Satawan Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. Voucher specimen) Specimen collected: BMW 5751 (BISH, DNA)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 21)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Waterhouse, Barbara (year unknown) (p. Voucher specimen) Specimen collected: BMW 5783 (BISH)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 28) Voucher cited: Lorence 7915 (PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Woleai Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kanathea Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 373-374) Voucher cited: Bryan 571
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 373-374) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 908
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 373-374) Voucher cited: Smith 7473
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 373-374) Voucher cited: Gillespie 4400.3
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 373-374) Vouchers cited: DA 10470, DA 10767
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 373-374) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 983
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1988) (pp. 373-374) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 151, DA 9738, Smith 4319, DA 10416, DA 10180, Smith 9444, DA 9521, DA 10006, Gillespie 3424, DA 10622, Meebold 16690
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 250) Voucher cited: BRY 26403
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 250) Voucher cited: Florence 9792
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1172-1173)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1172-1173)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H40116 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1172-1173)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H70111 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1172-1173) Voucher cited: Degener 27707 (BISH)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 31)
Kiribati Line Islands	Teraina (Washington) Island	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 31)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Abemama Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 76)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Butaritari Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 78)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 75) Voucher specimen collected: Imada 2003-41 (BISH 697656)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 11) "Uncommon; grassy and ruderal areas".
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 65) Vouchers cited: Herbst 8904, Herbst 8981, Herbst 9094, Whistler 11172, Whistler 11253
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 11) "Common; in lawns and ruderal areas".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced invasive	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 121)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 190) Voucher cited: Thaman & Manner 2 (SUVA)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 123) Voucher cited: MacKee 27243
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 123) Vouchers cited: Cribs 766, Schlechter 14814, Franc1381, MacKee 2139, MacKee 25267, Sévenet 1004, Toutain 3431 (NOU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Ouen	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 123) Voucher cited: Buchholz 1681
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 175) As Borreria laevis sensu auct. non (Lam.) Griesb. Voucher cited: CHR 170395
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 35)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 44)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 114) As Borreria laevis sensu auct. non (Lam.) Griesb. Voucher cited: Yuncker 9881 (BISH) "A weed in clearings and waste areas".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 47)
Palau Hatohobei Group	Tobi Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 110)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 104)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Canfield, Joan E. (1980) (p. 199) Voucher cited: Canfield 181 (US)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 102)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Kayangel (Ngcheangel) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 105)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 99)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 99)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 99)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 277-278)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 107)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Canfield, Joan E. (1980) (p. 199) Voucher cited: Canfield 425 (US)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngchus Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 108)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngercheu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 108) Carp Resort
Palau Rock Islands	Ngerchong Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Canfield, Joan E. (1980) (p. 199) Voucher cited: Canfield 539 (US)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 87-88)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 87-88)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 35)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 110)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 35)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 259) "Rather frequent throughout Tonga".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 259) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15428
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 259) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15007
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Late Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1981) (p. 351)
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Tuvalu Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Palmyra Atoll	Palmyra Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 31)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Alofi Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna (Horne) Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis Island	introduced invasive	Orapa, Warea (2005)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 35)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 87-88)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 87-88)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 63, 76)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 87-88)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 87-88)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 128)
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, B. M./Mitchell, A. A. (1998) (pp. 87-88)
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 37)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Topp, J. M. W. (1988) (p. 8)

Additional information:  Additional online information about Spermacoce assurgens is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Spermacoce assurgens may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Fosberg, F. R./Canfield, Joan E. 1980. Noteworthy Micronesian plants 3. Micronesica 16(2):189-200.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. 2nd edition. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 7. Lae, Papua New Guinea. 180 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Pohnpei. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 21 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Oppenheimer, Hank L. 2003. New plant records from Maui and Hawai‘i Counties. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2001-2002. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 73:3-30.

Orapa, Warea. 2005. Warea Orapa, Weed Mangement Officer, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, pers. com. (Trip Report, Wallis and Futuna Islands, 8 to 22 May, 2004).

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Smith, Albert C. 1988. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 4. 377 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. 2000. Invasive plant species on Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 43 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1981. The vegetation of Late, Tonga. Allertonia 2(6):323-353.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

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