Solanum torvum Sw., Solanaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 24 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: shui qie

English: devil's fig, prickly solanum, susumber, terongan, turkeyberry

Fijian: kaisurisuri, kausoni, kauvotovotua, soni

French: aubergine sauvage épineuse, fausse aubergine

Hindi: bhankatiya, katai

Other: piko

Spanish: berenjena cimarrona

Tongan: tisaipale

Yapese: rawelnagafi

Habit:  shrub

Description:  "Erect, much-branching perennial shrub up to 4 m in height.  Stems densely tomentose, armed with scattered prickles.  Leaves simple, alternate; blade ovate to elliptic in shape with an acute tip and rounded to oblique base, and mostly 5-20 cm long.  Leaf margins shallowly and irregularly lobed, upper leaf surface scabrous, lower surface, petioles, and pedicels densely tomentose, petiole about one-quarter as long as the blade.  Flowers in many-flowered corymbs borne at intervals on the stems.  Calyx with five acute lobes, tomentose; corolla sympetalous, deeply divided into five acuminate lobes, white, and 12-18 mm long.  Stamens five, yellow, epipetalous, and erect.  Fruit a many-seeded, green or yellow, glabrous, globose berry 10-15 mm in diameter"  (Whistler, 1983; p. 68).

Habitat/ecology:  "A major weed in pastures, roadsides and wasteland and also occurs in plantations, but not significantly in cultivated land.  It prefers moist, fertile soil, but will tolerate drought"  (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 18). "In Puerto Rico, turkeyberry grows in upland sites that receive from about 1000 to 4000 mm of annual precipitation. It also grows in riparian zones in drier areas. Turkey berry grows on all types of moist, fertile soil at elevations from near sea level to almost 1,000 m in Puerto Rico (Little and others 1974). Given an equal start after disturbance, turkey berry quickly overtops most herbs, grasses, and other shrubs. It grows best in full sunlight and does well in light shade or shade for part of the day, but cannot survive under a closed forest canopy. Turkey berry single plants, groups, and thickets are most frequently seen on roadsides, vacant lots, brushy pastures, recently abandoned farmland, landslides, and river banks"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

"Infests pastures in solid stands that shade out undergrowth.  Because of spines, interferes with passage of people and animals" (Motooka et al., 2003).  A weed of disturbed areas. Forms impenetrable thickets. In New Guinea, "a weed on grazing land; also at roadsides, forest edges, and sometimes frequent among the regrowth on abandoned gardens. From near sea level to almost 2000 m" (Henty & Pritchard, 1975; p. 151). In New Caledonia, "espèce gênante dans les fourrés secondaires" (MacKee, 1994; p. 133).

". . .[Solanum torvum] is a federally listed noxious weed (Coile 1993). Considered a weed in 32 countries, a serious or principal weed in 7 of these (Holm et al. 1979). Noted as naturalized in peninsular Florida by Small (1933), in disturbed uplands and in swamps." (ID &Biology of Nonnative Plants in FL's Nat. Areas (2nd ed.), p. 124)

Propagation:  Frugivorous birds eat the berry and spread the seeds.

Native range:  West Indies, now a pantropical weed.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (pp. 7, 12) Voucher: Flynn 6608 (PTBG, SAMOA)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1999) (voucher ID: PTBG 298) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 61)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 660852) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1980) (voucher ID: PTBG 22752) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Waguk, Erick E. (2000) (p. 29)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 247)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1935) (voucher ID: BISH 182011) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 10-11) Vouchers cited: DA 11519, Weiner 71-7-17b
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1971) (voucher ID: BISH 448520) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 10-11) Vouchers cited: DA 9697, Smith 4306, Gibbs 840, im Thurn 273, DA 10163, DA 9771, DA L.9600, Smith 9071, DA L.9601, DA 9497, DA 11031, DA 3695, Smith 7024, DA 9982, DA 10584, DA L.9561, DA 13898
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1924) (voucher ID: BISH 17338) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 33902) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1957) (voucher ID: BISH 33903) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1960) (voucher ID: BISH 33904) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 181920) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 181921) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 182012) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 182013) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1937) (voucher ID: BISH 182014) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 182015) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1964) (voucher ID: BISH 182016) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1940) (voucher ID: BISH 182017) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1927) (voucher ID: BISH 182018) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2591 (PAP) Adventice
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 699055) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1982) (voucher ID: PTBG 23241) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum cf. torvum Sw.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 65)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 61)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2003) (p. 32) Voucher cited: Starr & Martz 010801-1 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Frohlich, Danielle/Lau, Alex (2012) (p. 48) Voucher cited: D. Frohlich & A. Lau 2010040502 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1276) West Maui. Voucher cited: Degener 23636 (NY, US)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Meidell, J. Scott/Bartlett, R. T. (1999) (p. 10) East Maui. Voucher cited: Oppenheimer 305 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1276)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Abemama Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 247)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 247)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 103)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 100) "Coastal, secondary"
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 383) Espèce gênante dans les fourrés secondaires. Cité comme fléau en 1900.
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 182036) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Balabio	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 133) Voucher cited: MacKee 29339
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 133) Vouchers cited: Schlechter 15022, Le Rat 609, Däniker 18, H. Brinon 2 (NOU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 133) Voucher cited: MacKee 23596
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 37) Voucher cited: Sykes 1126
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 6) Not seen on this survey, probably no longer present.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 247)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (pp. 10, 86)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 17) Voucher: Lorence 9914 (PTBG, BNM, BISH, NY, US)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1941) (voucher ID: BISH 182104) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 207) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago		Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (pp. 494, 496) Common in the Gazelle Peninsula in areas with pumice soil; not found on New Ireland.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	invasive	Henty, E. E./Pritchard, G. H. (1975) (p. 151) From near sea level to almost 2000 m.
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands		Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 428) In open waste places at low and medium altitudes.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 37) Voucher cited: Kuerschner s. n.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 593159) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Mbanika Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 1002107) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Mbanika Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 1002143) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Mbanika Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 1002144) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 109)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 166) Dominant invader.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 9)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 74) Voucher cited: Soakai 892 (EI)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 9) Voucher: Flynn 6832 (PTBG, MO)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 74) Vouchers cited: Lawrence 194, Ilolahia 134, Soakai 232
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 41179) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 41235) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 41242) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 421402) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 253) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1989) (voucher ID: PTBG 3309) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 9) Voucher: Flynn 6858 (PTBG, MO)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 259) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-13) Vouchers cited: Starr & Starr 080601-02, Starr & Starr 080601-12
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 180)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 37)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Queensland Herbarium (2002) (p. 7)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	El Salvador (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 220) In wasteland or along roadside.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
Japan Japan	Japan	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 188)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 80) Naturalised
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Colombia	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2013)
Taiwan Taiwan Island	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive	Ching-I Peng, ed. (2013) "Roadsides and waste places at low elevation".
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. Arthur (1996) (p. 29)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1995) (voucher ID: PTBG 38070) Taxon name on voucher: Solanum torvum Sw.
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 343)
French Territory of Mayotte Mayotte Islands	Mayotte Island	introduced invasive	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2013)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	Invasive Species Specialist Group (2017)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013) Alabama, Maryland
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	native	Francis, John K., ed. (2009)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	native	Francis, John K., ed. (2009)

Comments:  Reported present on Niue by Whistler (1988; p. 37) but not seen by Space & Flynn (2000).
Reported present on Abemama and Tarawa by Fosberg et al. (1979; p. 127) but not seen by Space & Imada (2004) in their survey of these islands; possibly eradicated.

A pest species in French Polynesia, Tonga and elsewhere.

Spreading in pastures and disturbed areas on Upolu, Samoa (Space & Flynn, 2002). 

On U.S. and State of Hawai‘i noxious species lists.

Control: 

Physical: Grubbing, but the entire plant must be removed. "Tolerant to fire. Unpalatable to stock because of thorns. Controlled by cultivation and grubbing" (Swarbrick, 1997; pp. 29-30).

Chemical: "Susceptible to translocated herbicides, including glyphosate, 2,4-D, picloram and triclopyr applied to the foliage for freshly-cut stumps at standard rates"  (Swarbrick, 1997; pp. 29-30). "Sensitive to foliar-applied triclopyr and soil-applied tebuthiuron"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Biological:  "Most organisms which are reported to attack S. torvum alsoattack other Solanum species of economic importance. However, the leaf-eating chrysomelid beetle Leptinotarsa undecimlineata, is reported to be host-specific and might be a useful control agent" (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; pp. 350-354).

Biological control information from the publication "Biological control of invasive plants in the eastern United States".