Solanum lycopersicum L., Solanaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Evaluate, score: 2 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Solanum lycopersicum Mill.; Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Karst.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: tomate, tomates caputi, tomates ubas

English: cherry tomato, tomato, wild tomato

French: tomate, tomate sauvage

Hawaiian: ‘ōhi‘a ma ka nahele

I-Kiribati: te tomato

Maori (Cook Islands): tōmāti, tōmatī

Marshallese: tõmato

Spanish: tomate, tomate riñón, tomatera

Tahitian: tomati, tōmāti

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Annual or biennial herbs, undergoing secondary growth at the base; branches relatively robust and vining, extending up to 1 m from centre. Stem erect initially, later procumbent or decumbent, pubescent and usually villous towards the apex; trichomes of two types, numerous simple unicellular trichomes and sparse simple, uniseriate trichomes up to 3mm and composed of up to 10 cells, these usually denser at the nodes, the plant with a strong tomato scent. Sympodial units trifoliate. Internodes 1-4 cm, but very few specimens available. Leaves interrupted imparipinnate, 20-30 x 10-23 cm, sparsely pubescent like the stems on both surfaces or glabrescent, dark green; primary leaflets 2-3 pairs, opposite, subopposite or alternate, 3.5-8.5 x 1.3-3 cm, ovate or elliptic, the base asymmetric, truncate to cordate, the margins dentate or crenate mainly near the base, rarely deeply dentate or lobulate; terminal primary leaflet usually larger than the laterals; secondary leaflets fewer than 15 to absent, present mainly basiscopically; interjected leaflets usually present, 5-12 per leaf, subopposite or alternate, short-petiolate; rachis 1.9-14.5 cm. Petiole 1.2-4.2 cm, sparsely pubescent; pseudostipules absent. Inflorescences usually simple, rarely with 2 branches, to 5 cm, 5-8-flowered, shorter than the stems and growing leaves; peduncle 1-3.5 cm; rachis pubescent like the stems; pedicels 0.6-1.8 cm, articulate just above or just below the middle. Calyx to 1.8 cm in diameter, pubescent with long and short simple uniseriate trichomes; tube very short, less than 1 mm; lobes to 5-9 x 1 mm, linear, the apex acute. Corolla 2-3 cm in diameter, bright yellow; tube to 0.6 cm long; lobes 0.8-1.3 x 0.35-0.5 cm, narrowly lanceolate, spreading to somewhat reflexed at anthesis. Staminal column 6.5-8.5 mm, narrowly cone-shaped; filaments 1-3 mm; anthers 4-6.5 mm, the sterile tip less than half the total column length. Ovary conical, minutely glandular-villous; style 6.5-10 mm, usually included in the staminal column, but exerted in facultatively allogamous populations; stigma minute. Fruits (2-) 2.2-4 (-10 in some cultivars not known from Galapagos) cm in diameter, usually globose and 2-locular, but often of varying shape and multilocular, glabrescent and becoming red at maturity; calyx lobes in fruit accrescent, 0.75-1.6 cm, somewhat reflexed, never exceeding the length of the fruit. Seeds 25-85 per fruit, c. 3.5 x 2.5 mm, beaked; testa appearing hairy over entire surface with the elongate lateral cell walls; dry seed weight c. 1.5 mg"  (Darwin et al., 2003).

Habitat/ecology:  In Hawai‘i, "commonly cultivated and occasionally adventive or possibly naturalized in disturbed sites" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1258-1259, 1895).  In Fiji, "often naturalized in waste places" (Smith, 1991; pp. 25-26). In New Caledonia, "cultivée aujourd'hui sur une échelle assez importante; existe aussi comme plante rudérale à fruits abondants et savoureux mais toujours petits" (MacKee, 1994; p. 132). "The cultivated tomato S. lycopersicum is grown wherever people establish towns and villages, and it is a quick-growing adventive weed in many parts of the world" (Darwin et al., 1999).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Northern Andes of South America, widely cultivated and naturalized in warm temperate and tropical areas (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1258-1259).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Manihiki Atoll	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Nassau Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Pukapuka Atoll	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Rakahanga Atoll	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Palmerston (Avarau) Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 22)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 99)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 25-26) Voucher cited: H.W. Simmonds "B" (K)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008) As Solanum lycopersicum L. var. cerasiforme (Dunal) D. M. Spooner, G. J. Anderson & R. K. Jansen
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008) As Solanum lycopersicum L. var. lycopersicum
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 61) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64867 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 272)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tetiaroa Atoll	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M.-H./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 51)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tupai (Tubai) Island	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 22)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Takapoto Atoll	introduced	Sachet, M-H. (1983) (p. 36)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 518) Also var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg; voucher cited: Stone 4865 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246) Also var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1258-1259) Also var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1258-1259) Also var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1259) Var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1259) Var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1259) Var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1259) Var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1259) Var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1258-1259) Also var. cerasiforme (Alef.) Fosberg; voucher cited: Heller 1998 (BISH)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007) Var. cerasiforme (Dunal) A.Gray
Kiribati Line Islands	Flint Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, Harold/Fosberg, F. Raymond (1937) (p. 4) Voucher cited: St. John & Fosberg 17447 (BISH)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll	cultivated	Chock, Alvin K./Hamilton, Jr., Dean C. (1962) (p. 6)
Kiribati Line Islands	Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 30) Volunteers in waste areas.
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 30)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Ailinglaplap (Ailinglapalap) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Enewetak (Ãnewetak) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 19) Voucher cited: Fosberg 24374 (US) Persisting after cultivation.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2006) (p. 12) "Rare; few bushes planted in Bikini Projects garden".
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 103)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian (2007) (p. 12) "Uncommon;planted in Reimers' farm and few other private garden farms; exported to Majuro for market".
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 127)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 246)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 199) Spontaneous in waste heaps.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Ouvéa (Ouvea Atoll)	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 132) Voucher cited: Däniker 1943 (Z) Spontané
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 132) Vouchers cited: Däniker 113 (Z), Baumann 6786, MacKee 9940 Spontané
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (p. 143)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 1228) "Usually only a casual escape from cultivation, cultivated land, waste and open places, rubbish heaps, occasionally forming small populations in scrub".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 194) Voucher cited: CHR 169998
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 44)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 49) Voucher cited: St. John 14996
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 87)
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 241)
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Nui Atoll		Woodroffe, C. D. (1985) (p. 15) Voucher cited: Woodroffe 183 (CHR)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced cultivated	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 59)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1959) (p. 19)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1969) (p. 14) Present in 1961, not seen in 1963.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 94)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 224)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 1228) "Usually only a casual escape from cultivation, cultivated land, waste and open places, rubbish heaps, occasionally forming small populations in scrub".
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2009)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 224)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 118)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Topp, J. M. W. (1988) (p. 11) Occasionally naturalized.
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Agalega Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. (1983) (p. 137)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Frégate Island		Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. (1983) (p. 61)

Comments:  Of particular concern in the Galápagos Islands due to possible hybridization with native Solanaceae.

Additional information:
Additional online information about Solanum lycopersicum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Solanum lycopersicum as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Solanum lycopersicum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

Other Latin names:  Solanum lycopersicum Mill.; Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Karst.

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chock, Alvin K./Hamilton, Jr., Dean C. 1962. Plants of Christmas Island. Atoll Res. Bull. 90. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 7 pp.

Darwin, Sarah C./Knapp, Sandra/Peralta, Iris E. 2003. Taxonomy of tomatoes in the Galapagos Islands: native and introduced species of Solanum section Lycopersicon (Solanaceae). Systematics and Biodiversity 1(1):29-53.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1959. Vegetation and flora of Wake Island. Atoll Research Bulletin 67. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 20 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Stoddart, D. R. 1983. List of the recorded vascular flora of Agalega. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2008. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. 1983. Vegetation of Frégate Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Sachet, M-H. 1983. Takapoto Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago: terrestrial vegetation and flora. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 277. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 41 pp. + photos.

Sachet, M.-H. 1983. Botanique de l'ile de Tupai, Iles de la Societe. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 276. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 26 pp. + photos.

Sachet, M.-H./Fosberg, F. R. 1983. An ecological reconnaissance of Tetiaroa Atoll, Society Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 275. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 67 pp. + photos.

Smith, Albert C. 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 5. 626 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

St. John, H. 1987. An account of the flora of Pitcairn Island with new Pandanus species. Honolulu, 65 pp.

St. John, Harold/Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1937. Vegetation of Flint Island, Central Pacific. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers XII(24):1-4.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1977. Kermadec Islands flora: an annotated checklist. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 219, Wellington. 216 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

Thaman, R. R. 1987. Plants of Kiribati: a listing and analysis of vernacular names. Atoll Res. Bull. 296:1-42.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

Topp, J. M. W. 1988. An annotated check list of the flora of Diego Garcia, British Ocean Territory. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 313. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 21 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2009. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian. 2006. Plants of Kili Island, Marshall Islands. Unpublished checklist. 12 pp.

Vander Velde, Nancy/Vander Velde, Brian. 2007. Arno plants [preliminary working listing of plant species]. Unpublished checklist, 13 pp.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand, Volume IV: Naturalised pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch. 1365 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wester, Lyndon. 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Reseach Bulletin 287:1-38.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Woodroffe, C. D. 1985. Vegetation and flora of Nui Atoll, Tuvalu. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 283. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 18 pp. + maps, photos.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.