Solanum americanum Mill., Solanaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

English: American nightshade, black nightshade, glossy nightshade, small-flowered nightshade

Fijian: malahome, mboro, mboro laukana, mboro ni veiwere, mboro ni yaloka ni ngata, mburosousou ni vavalangi, thevuthevu

French: morelle noire

Hawaiian: ‘olohua, polopolo, pōpolo, pōpolohua

Maori (Cook Islands): poro, poro puaka, poroporo

Marquesan: oupoo

Niuean: polo fua, polo kai

Samoan: magālo, polo

Spanish: hierba mora, hierba mora negra

Tahitian: ‘oporo

Tongan: polo kai

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Annual or short-lived perennial herbs up to 1.2 m tall, erect or wide-spreading, straggly with age, sometimes flushed purplish; stems sometimes angled or narrowly winged with lines of tissue from base of petiole, the wings smooth or with sort soft teeth, unarmed, glabrous or sparsely pubescent with simple curbed hairs.  Leaves simple, alternate, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, margins entire or with up to 8 short, blunt, rounded lobes, sinuses shallow and rounded, greatly variable in size, up to 10 cm long on young growth and up to 2 long on aged distal twigs, usually ca. 6 cm long and 3 cm wide, apex acute to acuminate, base truncate to cuneate and continued as a narrow wing along petiole, petioles 1-4 cm long.  Flowers perfect, actinomorphic, in extra-axillary umbelliform cymes, peduncles 1-2.5 cm long, flowers congested at apex, pedicels 5-8 mm long; calyx campanulate, 1-2 mm long, the lobes obtuse, ca. 1 mm long; corolla white or occasionally purple-tinged, stellate, 0.8-0.9 cm in diameter, with a yellowish green star-shaped area, the lobes ca. 1.5 mm wide; stamens inserted near base of corolla tube; filaments with spreading hairs on inner side, 1-2 mm long; anthers oblong, 1.5-2 mm long, opening by pores or short slits; ovary globose, ca. 1 mm in diameter, glabrous; style erect, 2.5-4 mm long, pubescent in lower part; stigma capitate, at level of anther pores.  Berries glossy black, succulent, readily shed when ripe, sclerotic granules 0-4, ca. 0.5 mm in diameter, pedicels erect or recurved in fruit, up to 4 cm long, calyx somewhat enlarged and often reflexed.  Seeds numerous, 1-1.5 mm long, compressed, testa minutely reticulate" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1268-1269).

Habitat/ecology:  "Occasional to common among rocks, along sand beaches and trails, in woodlands and fields; a ubiquitous weed, native in the Old World and widely distributed there and in the Americas" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; p. 480).

In Hawai‘i, "possibly naturalized in open sites from coastal to wet forest, subalpine woodland, and disturbed roadsides and pasture, 0-2,380 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1268-1269).  In Fiji, "occasional to abundant from hear sea level to an elevation of about 1,130 m as a weed in villages, clearings, gardens, canefields, and plantations, and on open gravel banks and waste land" (Smith, 1991; pp. 12-13).  "Occasional in sunny disturbed places and croplands" (Whistler, 1988; p.37). Arid lowlands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 196).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Most probably an early introduction throughout the Pacific area. "[C]ommon in disturbed areas from southern Georgia to Florida, west to California, and south through Mexico to Central and South America (Schilling, 1981); additionally it now occurs as an abundant weed throughout much of the Paleotropics." (Smith, 1991; pp. 12-13).  "Aboriginally introduced, or possibly native, to Polynesia" (Whistler, 1988; p. 37).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Garber 976
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		Flynn, Tim (year unknown)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Garber 957
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 21) Subsp. nutans (R.J.F. Henders.) R.J.F. Henders Vouchers cited: A.N. Rodd 1751 (K, NSW), P.S. Green 1571 (A, BRI, K), L.A.S. Johnson & A.N. Rodd 1272 (BRI, K, NSW)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	native	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 10) Subsp. nutans (R.J.F. Henders.) R.J.F. Henders Vouchers cited: W.R. Sykes NI 151 (CHR); 1971, K.S. Harley (BRI, K); P.S . Green 1486 (A)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	native	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 61)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	native	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 61)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Rakahanga Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Palmerston (Avarau) Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Darwin Islands	Darwin Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Española Group	Española Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Fernandina Group	Fernandina Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Alcedo	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Cerro Azul	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Darwin	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcan Sierra Negra	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Pinta Group	Pinta Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Pinzón Group	Pinzón Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Santiago Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Wolf Islands	Wolf Island	probably introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Research Station (2005)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Chuuk Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 99) Voucher cited: Takamatsu 772 (BM)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 30)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fulanga Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 12-13) Voucher cited: Smith 1174
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 12-13) Voucher cited: Smith 206
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 12-13) Voucher cited: DA 5717
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 12-13) Vouchers cited: DA 9675, Greenwood 105, Gillespie 4348, Smith 9450, DA 1908, Smith 9070, DA 9544, DA 11049, DA 11088, DA 12268
Fiji Fiji Islands	Yasawas Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (pp. 12-13) Voucher cited: Weiner 248
French Polynesia Clipperton Island	Clipperton (Arue, Avera) Island		Sachet, M.-H. (1962) (p. 93)
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Gambier Islands		Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 273)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Marquesas Islands		Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 273)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mehetia (Mahetia, Meetia) Island		Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 273)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 273)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 273) Voucher cited: BRY 26037
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kure Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Laysan Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lehua Island	introduced invasive	Wood, K. R./LeGrande, Maya (2006) (p. 28) Vouchers cited: K.R. Wood et al. 9301 (BISH, PTBG, US), K.R. Wood & VanderWerf 9870 (BISH, PTBG, US)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Nihoa Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	probably native cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	probably native	Fosberg, F. Raymond (1990) (p. 32)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1962) (p. 34) Voucher cited: Fosberg 39475 (US)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 68) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31177, Fosberg 31180. Not seen in this survey and may no longer be present.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	probably native	Fosberg, F. Raymond (1990) (p. 32)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R. (1955) (p. 19) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31177 (US), Fosberg 31180 (US)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll	probably native	Fosberg, F. Raymond (1990) (p. 32)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Arno Atoll		Anderson, Donald (1951) (p. vi) Voucher cited: Anderson 3672
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Kermadec Islands	introduced invasive	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 1252) "Scrub and open forest stands, cliffs, especially in dry coastal sites, sometimes rather moist gullies, occasionally a plantation weed".
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. (1996) (p. 456)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 197) Incorrectly as Solanum nigrum per Smith (1981). Vouchers cited: CHR 169995, CHR 169996, CHR 169997
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 37)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 46) Polynesian introduction or native. Voucher cited: Whistler 10810
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 106) Incorrectly as Solanum nigrum per Smith (1981). Voucher cited: Yuncker 9632 (BISH) "A common weed in plantations and waste areas".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 50)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 246-247)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 65)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 37)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 109)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Tofua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Voucher cited: Scarth-Johnson 87?
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Vouchers cited: Moseley s.n., Lawrence 138?
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 238) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15272
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 73) Vouchers cited: Barclay s.n., Crosby 117
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1268-1269)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 97)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	probably native	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 1252) "Scrub and open forest stands, cliffs, especially in dry coastal sites, sometimes rather moist gullies, occasionally a plantation weed".
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 127)
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	native	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 19)
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Cocos (Keeling) Islands	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 37)

Additional information:  Additional online information about Solanum americanum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Solanum americanum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Anderson, Donald. 1951. The plants of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 7. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 4 pp. + 7 pp. appendix.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Flynn, Tim. 0. Tim Flynn, pers. com.

Fosberg, F. R. 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 39. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 22 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 39 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1990. A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 330. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 100 pp.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Pohnpei. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 21 pp.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Sachet, M.-H. 1962. Geography and land ecology of Clipperton Island. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 86. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 115 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 5. 626 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. 1996. New records and other information on the vascular flora of the Kermadec Islands. New Zealand Journal of Botany 34:447-462.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1997. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture and plantation forestry in the Southern and Western Pacific. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 93 pp.

Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand, Volume IV: Naturalised pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch. 1365 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1984. Annotated list of Samoan plant names. Economic Botany 38:464.489.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. Ethnobotany of the Cook Islands: The plants, their Maori names, and their uses. Allertonia 5(4):347-424.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. The weeds of Manu‘a [unpublished checklist]. 18 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Unpublished technical report. 76 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Wood, K. R./LeGrande, Maya. 2006. An annotated checklist and new island records of flowering plants from Lehua Islet, Ni‘ihau, Hawai‘i. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2004-2005. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 87:19-29.

Yuncker, T. G. 1943. The flora of Niue Island. Bishop Mus. Bull. 178. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 126 pp.

Yuncker, T. G. 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bull. 220. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 343 pp.