Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, Anacardiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 19 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

English: Brazilian pepper, Christmas berry, Florida holly

Fijian: warui

French: baie rose, encent, faux poivrier, poivre du Brésil, poivre marron, poivre rose, poivrier d'Amérique

Hawaiian: naniohilo, wilelaiki

Spanish: copal, pimienta de Brasil

Habit:  tree

Description:  "Evergreen shrub or tree 3-6 (-15) m high, with wide-spreading, horizontal branches.  Leaves:  Dark green with prominent pale veins above, paler below, glabrous, leaflets (5)-7-(13), oblong, rounded or bluntly pointed, sometimes very small, male and female flowers on separate trees, in tightly branched, terminal and axillary clusters.  Fruits:  Bright red, slightly fleshy, one-seeded, globose drupes"  (Henderson, 1995).

Habitat/ecology:  "The low-growing, evergreen, deciduous tree is an aggressive invader of most mesic to wet lowland environments. It shades out other plants, as well as preventing reestablishment of other species due to the release of allelopathic substances (Gogue, Hurst, and Bancroft, 1974).  "Primarily invades degraded sites and the early successional stages of wetland and riparian vegetation, but may also become established in more mature communities" (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 196).  The species is widely distributed in lowland areas of Hawai‘i" (Smith, 1985; p. 459).  In Hawai‘i, "Naturalized in usually mesic, disturbed areas, 3-920 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 198); "grows densely in drier mesic pastures and forests"  (Motooka et al., 2003).  In Queensland, Australia, "dense infestations occur on waterlogged or poorly drained soils in coastal areas.  It can rapidly colonise disturbed bushland in low-lying areas and may suppress establishment of native vegetation. In the latter habitats, S. terebinthifolius may replace various species of grasses, sedges and other ground plants.  Fire does not appear to control the plant as it has been observed to quickly regrow from the base." (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 196). In New Caledonia, "devenu localement abondant dans la végétation secondaire" (MacKee, 1994; p. 14).

Propagation:  The fruit is especially favored by frugivorous birds.

Native range:  South America, probably eastern and southern Brazil, but now widespread in cultivation and often naturalized. (Smith, 1985; p. 459).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Ziesing, P. (1997) (pp. 26-27)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 7) "Common, and a serious weed". Voucher cited: G. Uhe 1150 (K)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (p. 459) Vouchers cited: DA 5976, 8300, 17430
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 15193) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1970) (voucher ID: BISH 147531) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 4)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 94) "Potential invader".
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 390-391) Uncommon. Naturalized
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 146)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 128988) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 647714) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced invasive	Toyoda, Takeshi (2003) (p. 283) Naturalized
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 146)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 98)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 99) Coastal habitats.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Vouchers cited: Sarasin 756, MacKee 27246
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Ouvéa (Ouvea Atoll)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Däniker 1894
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 379) Devenue localement abondante dans les formations secondaires.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Vouchers cited: Brousmiche s.n., Compton 136 (BM), MacKee 2162, Stauffer 5715 (NOU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Denizot s.n., MacKee 23466
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 65)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced cultivated	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 57)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êfaté (Efete) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 415781) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	New South Wales	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 196)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 196)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 110)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007) Naturalized
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	introduced invasive	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2005)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. (1991) (pp. 51-61)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Très envahissant"
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. (2001) (p. 194)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced invasive	Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. (2001) (p. `94)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2005)

Comments:  A major problem species in Hawai‘i and Florida.

Control:  The Nature Conservancy's Stewardship Abstract contains information on control methods.

Physical: Seedlings and saplings can be hand pulled. "Cattle avoid Christmasberry but birds spread the seed.  Seeds do not germinate while in the fruit and will retain viability for no more than 9 months.  Thus, ingestion by birds is critical not only for dispersal but also for pulp removal and germination.  This suggests that eradicating small, isolated stands is possible.  Goats will control Christmasberry (An Peischel)"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Chemical: Basal application of a triclopyr herbicide mixed with an oil diluent (Hammer, 1996).

"Sensitive to foliar applications of imazapyr and to foliar and cut surface applications of triclopyr, dicamba and glyphosate, and to basal bark applications of triclopyr. Not sensitive to 2,4-D.  Sensitive to soil application of tebuthiuron and hexazinone.  Kline and Duquesnel reported excellent control with triclopyr ester/oil applied basal bark at 10% of product, triclopyr amine at 50% of product in water applied to cut surfaces, and imazapyr at 1% of product in water applied as foliar sprays.  HAVO staff reported control with triclopyr ester at 5% of product in diesel oil applied to basal bark (Chris Zimmer, HAVO).  Good control was achieved with high-volume foliar application of a 1% solution of triclopyr amine product.  The National Park Service in Big Cypress National Reserve, Florida, used high-volume spraying of triclopyr ester at 2.5 lb/acre.  For plants close to native ones, basal bark treatments are made with a 20% triclopyr ester product in oil.  Reported sensitive to cut-surface applications of dicamba, glyphosate, and picloram"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

"Foliar and particularly basal bark applications of herbicides kill the plant slowly, compared to mechanical treatments, allowing other plants to respond to increasing light and moisture availability over a couple of weeks. If desirable, the dead stem can be left to provide shade for plants coming in to replace the dead Schinus." (Duane Nelson, communication to ALLISCS listserver).

Biological: Several native pests from Brazil have been released in Hawai‘i, but seem to be having little effect (Cronk & Fuller, 2001, pp. 194-195; Julien, 1992, p. 3).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Brazilian Pepper Management Plan for Florida (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council)
Photos and additional information at University of Florida, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants.
Information on this prohibited species from the Miami-Dade County [Florida] web site.
Fact sheet from the University of Florida Extension Service. (PDF format)
The Nature Conservancy photos and Stewardship Abstract.
Additional information at the Woody Plant Ecology web site.
Fact sheet from "Common forest trees of Hawaii" (PDF format).

Additional online information about Schinus terebinthifolius is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Schinus terebinthifolius may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 15193 (Turbet, M.E. 5976).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1954. Voucher specimen #BISH 128988 (Fosberg, F.R. 35607).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1970. Voucher specimen #BISH 147531 (Parham, J.W. 17430).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 415781 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1467).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 647714 (Fosberg, F.R. 59679).

Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. 2001. Plant invaders. Earthscan Publications, Ltd., London. 241 pp.

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. Ed. by David R. Stoddart. U. Cal. Berkeley.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Henderson, Lesley. 1995. Plant invaders of Southern Africa. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 5, Agriculture Research Council, ARC/LNR, Pretoria, South Africa. 177 pp.

Jérémie, J./Hoff, M./Jonsell, B. 1997. Sphenostemonaceae, Anacardiaceae, Cruciferae. Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et Dépendances. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Vol. 21, 121 pp.

Julien, M. H. (ed.). 1992. Biological control of weeds: A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds (third edition). CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 186 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Little, Elbert L./Skolmen, Roger G. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and introduced). USDA Agriculture Handbook 679. Washington, D.C. 377 pp. + plates.

MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. 1991. Effects of alien plant invasions on native vegetation remnants on La Reunion (Mascarenes Islands, Indian Ocean). Environmental Conservation 18 (1):51-61.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Panetta, Dane. 1995. Schinus terebinthifolius, another ornamental species gone wild. Aliens 2:16.

Randall, J. M./Marinelli, J. (eds.). 1996. Invasive plants: weeds of the global garden. Brooklyn Botanic Garden Handbook 149. 111 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Toyoda, Takeshi. 2003. Flora of the Bonin Islands. Aboc & Co. 522 pp.

U. S. Government. 2006. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) (on-line resource).

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. 2005. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1997. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture and plantation forestry in the Southern and Western Pacific. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 93 pp.

Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand, Volume IV: Naturalised pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch. 1365 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.

Ziesing, P. 1997. Norfolk Island weed control manual for selected weeds occurring in Norfolk Island National Park. Environment Australia, Norfolk Island.