Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, Anacardiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

High risk, score: 19 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific))
Reject, score: 19 (Go to the risk assessment (U.S. (Florida)))

Common name(s): [more details]

English: Brazilian pepper, Christmas berry, Florida holly

Fijian: warui

French: baie rose, encent, faux poivre du Brésil, faux poivrier, poivre marron, poivre rose, poivrier d'Amérique

Hawaiian: naniohilo, wilelaiki

Spanish: copal, pimienta de Brasil

Habit:  tree

Description:  "A multiple-stemmed evergreen shrub or small tree, usually 2 to 6 m in height and 3 to 12 cm in stem diameter. A few individuals of the species develop large central stems and a dense growth of low limbs and basal sprouts. The bark is smooth and gray. Wounds in the stem and twigs exude a resinous sap that turns black on exposure to air. The alternate, compound leaves have a rachis 3 to 14 cm long, often winged, with five to nine leaflets. The leaflets are 1.5 to 7.5 cm long, lanceolate to elliptic, pointed at each end, with entire to serrate edges. The midribs, rachis, and petiole are often reddish, especially when young. Crushed foliage smells like turpentine. The inflorescences (panicles) are mostly born in the leaf axils near the twig ends and contain many small white flowers. Male and female flowers are borne on different plants (dioecious). The fruits are bright-red, fleshy drupes 4 to 6.5 mm in diameter with an aromatic brown pulp and an elliptic light brown stone (Liogier 1988, Long and Lakela 1976, National Parks Service 2002)" 

"Evergreen shrub or tree 3-6 (-15) m high, with wide-spreading, horizontal branches.  Leaves:  Dark green with prominent pale veins above, paler below, glabrous, leaflets (5)-7-(13), oblong, rounded or bluntly pointed, sometimes very small, male and female flowers on separate trees, in tightly branched, terminal and axillary clusters.  Fruits:  Bright red, slightly fleshy, one-seeded, globose drupes"  (Henderson, 1995).

Habitat/ecology:  "Brazilian pepper tree is an aggressive pioneer species that quickly colonizes disturbed areas. The species has an intermediate tolerance of shade and can survive and grow slowly under forest canopies until disturbance releases it. Although seedlings are quickly killed by inundation, large plants can withstand up to 6 months of flooding. It is very drought resistant. Brazilian pepper tree also survives fire well and can withstand high winds without significant damage. It is apparently at home in tropical, Mediterranean, and desert climates (National Parks Service 2002). In Puerto Rico, the species is most common in low-elevation, moist limestone areas and nearby coastal plains. In Florida, it grows in mangrove associations, hammocks, pinelands, old fields, and disturbed areas (Long and Lakela 1976)"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

"The low-growing, evergreen, deciduous tree is an aggressive invader of most mesic to wet lowland environments. It shades out other plants, as well as preventing reestablishment of other species due to the release of allelopathic substances (Gogue, Hurst, and Bancroft, 1974).  "Primarily invades degraded sites and the early successional stages of wetland and riparian vegetation, but may also become established in more mature communities" (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 196). 

The species is widely distributed in lowland areas of Hawai‘i" (Smith, 1985; p. 459).  In Hawai‘i, "Naturalized in usually mesic, disturbed areas, 3-920 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 198); "grows densely in drier mesic pastures and forests"  (Motooka et al., 2003); "thrives in sunny, dry, leeward areas, and it can take over pastures, roadsides, and vacant lots as well as invade forests" (Staples & Herbst, 2005; p. 106).  In Queensland, Australia, "dense infestations occur on waterlogged or poorly drained soils in coastal areas.  It can rapidly colonise disturbed bushland in low-lying areas and may suppress establishment of native vegetation. In the latter habitats, S. terebinthifolius may replace various species of grasses, sedges and other ground plants.  Fire does not appear to control the plant as it has been observed to quickly regrow from the base." (Csurhes & Edwards, 1998; p. 196). In New Caledonia, "devenu localement abondant dans la végétation secondaire" (MacKee, 1994; p. 14).

Propagation:  "Seeds are spread by birds and mammals and germinate readily; recruitment from seed is rapid"  (Weber, 2003; p. 389).  The fruit is especially favored by frugivorous birds.

Native range:  South America, probably eastern and southern Brazil, but now widespread in cultivation and often naturalized. (Smith, 1985; p. 459).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1994) (voucher ID: PTBG 43331) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Ziesing, P. (1997) (pp. 26-27)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 7) "Common, and a serious weed". Voucher cited: G. Uhe 1150 (K)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (p. 459) Vouchers cited: DA 5976, 8300, 17430
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 15193) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1970) (voucher ID: BISH 147531) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island		Fosberg, F. R. (1997) (p. 4)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 94) "Potential invader".
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 2628 (PAP) Cultivée. Menace pour la biodiversité.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 390-391) Uncommon. Naturalized
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 146)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 128988) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 647714) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced invasive	Toyoda, Takeshi (2003) (p. 283) Naturalized
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 146)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 98)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1998) (voucher ID: PTBG 46184) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Loyauté (Loyalty Islands)	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 100) "Coastal habitats"
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Vouchers cited: Sarasin 756, MacKee 27246
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Ouvéa (Ouvea Atoll)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Däniker 1894
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 379) Devenue localement abondante dans les formations secondaires.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Vouchers cited: Brousmiche s.n., Compton 136 (BM), MacKee 2162, Stauffer 5715 (NOU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Denizot s.n., MacKee 23466
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Western Samoa Islands		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 65)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced cultivated	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 57)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Midway Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 198)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island		Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (p. 24) Not seen in this survey, probably eradicated.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êfaté (Efete) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 415781) Taxon name on voucher: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	New South Wales	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 196)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 196)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 197) Ornamental.
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 186)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 110)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2011) Naturalized
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 77) Cultivated only
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	introduced invasive	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2011)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. (1991) (pp. 51-61)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Très envahissant"
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Kueffer, C./Lavergne, C. (2004) (p. 4)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Baret, Stephane/Rouget, Mathieu/Richardson, David M./Lavergne, Christophe/Egoh, Benis/Dupont, Joel/Strasberg, Dominique (2006) (p. 758)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. (2001) (p. 194)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Kueffer, C./Mauremootoo, J. (2004) (p. 6)
French Territory of Mayotte Mayotte Islands	Mayotte Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Comité français de l'Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature en France (2010) Naturalisée, potentiellement envahissant.

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced invasive	Cronk, Q. C. B./Fuller, J. L. (2001) (p. 94)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2011)

Comments:  A major problem species in Hawai‘i and Florida.

Planting of this species in the State of Florida (U.S.) is prohibited by Florida Department of Environmental Protection (Hunsberger, 2001).

Control:  Additional control information from the Bugwood Wiki.

Physical: Seedlings and saplings can be hand pulled. "Cattle avoid Christmasberry but birds spread the seed.  Seeds do not germinate while in the fruit and will retain viability for no more than 9 months.  Thus, ingestion by birds is critical not only for dispersal but also for pulp removal and germination.  This suggests that eradicating small, isolated stands is possible.  Goats will control Christmasberry (An Peischel)"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Chemical: Basal application of a triclopyr herbicide mixed with an oil diluent (Hammer, 1996).

"Sensitive to foliar applications of imazapyr and to foliar and cut surface applications of triclopyr, dicamba and glyphosate, and to basal bark applications of triclopyr. Not sensitive to 2,4-D.  Sensitive to soil application of tebuthiuron and hexazinone.  Kline and Duquesnel reported excellent control with triclopyr ester/oil applied basal bark at 10% of product, triclopyr amine at 50% of product in water applied to cut surfaces, and imazapyr at 1% of product in water applied as foliar sprays.  HAVO staff reported control with triclopyr ester at 5% of product in diesel oil applied to basal bark (Chris Zimmer, HAVO).  Good control was achieved with high-volume foliar application of a 1% solution of triclopyr amine product.  The National Park Service in Big Cypress National Reserve, Florida, used high-volume spraying of triclopyr ester at 2.5 lb/acre.  For plants close to native ones, basal bark treatments are made with a 20% triclopyr ester product in oil.  Reported sensitive to cut-surface applications of dicamba, glyphosate, and picloram"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

"Foliar and particularly basal bark applications of herbicides kill the plant slowly, compared to mechanical treatments, allowing other plants to respond to increasing light and moisture availability over a couple of weeks. If desirable, the dead stem can be left to provide shade for plants coming in to replace the dead Schinus." (Duane Nelson, communication to ALLISCS listserver).

Biological: Biological control information from the publication "Biological control of invasive plants in the eastern United States".

Several native pests from Brazil have been released in Hawai‘i, but seem to be having little effect (Cronk & Fuller, 2001, pp. 194-195; Julien, 1992, p. 3).

"In the 1950s and 1960s, three insects from Brazil were released in Hawaii to control Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmasberry): a leaf-rolling moth, Episimus utilis; a seed-feeding beetle, Lithraeus atronotatus; and a stem-galling moth, Crasimorpha infuscate. The leaf-roller and beetle became established but had little effect. A seed-feeding wasp, Megastigmus transvaalensis, was accidentally introduced to Hawaii from South Africa in the early 1970s, and can cause up to 80% mortality to Christmasberry seed. This wasp may be now controlling the spread of Christmasberry in Hawaii. Other potential biological control agents for Christmasberry have been tested, including the sawfly Heteroperreyia hubrichi and the fungal pathogen Septoria schinii. Both these agents also affect the native plant Rhus sandwicensis, which--like Schinus--is in the Anardiaceae family. Because of the risk to the native species, the pathogen is no longer under consideration as a biological control agent. Further testing of the sawfly is recommended"  (Biological control in Hawai‘i).

Additional information:
Excerpt from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Information from the Bugwood Wiki.
Information from the Global Invasive Species Database.
Information from the book "Identification and biology of non-native plants in Florida's natural areas" (PDF format).
Brazilian Pepper Management Plan for Florida (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council)
Photos and additional information at University of Florida, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants.
Additional information at the Woody Plant Ecology web site.
Fact sheet from the University of Florida Extension Service. (PDF format)
Fact sheet from "Common forest trees of Hawaii" (PDF format).
Fact sheet from "Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions" (PDF format).
Article from "Wildland Weeds".

Additional online information about Schinus terebinthifolius is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Schinus terebinthifolius as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Schinus terebinthifolius may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

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Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 15193 (Turbet, M.E. 5976).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1954. Voucher specimen #BISH 128988 (Fosberg, F.R. 35607).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1970. Voucher specimen #BISH 147531 (Parham, J.W. 17430).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 415781 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1467).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 647714 (Fosberg, F.R. 59679).

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

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