Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth., Fabaceae

Click on an image for links to BIGGER PICTURES

Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  High risk, score: 14 (Go to the risk assessment)

Other Latin names:  Mimosa dulcis Roxb.

Common name(s): [more details]

Carolinian: ghamasiligh

Chamorro: camachili, kamachile, kamachile, kamachiles, kamachili, kamachili, kamatire

Chuukese: kamachuri

English: Madras thorn, Manila tamarind, sweet inga

French: campèche, pois sucré, tamarin de l'Inde

Hawaiian: ‘opiuma

Hindi: kataiya

Palauan: kamatsíri, kamatsiri

Spanish: guamúchil, haumúchil, madre de flecha

Habit:  tree

Description:  "Small to medium tree, the trunk spiny; leaves bipinnate, each pinna with a single pair of leaflets; stipules spinose; leaflets asymmetric, ovate-oblong, mostly a little over 2 cm long or up to 4 cm long, longer than the petiole; flowers greenish-white, fragrant, sessile in dense heads; calyx grayish-puberulent; stigma minute, capitate; pod irregularly swollen, twisted strongly, up to 12 cm long but seemingly shorter because of coiling, usually 6-8-seeded; pod with an inner sweetish white edible pulp (the funicules); seeds black" (Stone, 1970; pp. 302-303).

Habitat/ecology:  This thorny, deciduous tree grows up to 10 m tall, forming impenetrable thickets. It is relatively resistant to fire and resprouts rapidly by basal or aerial shoots.  It is found from sea level to 300 m elevation in dryer habitats (C. W. Smith, 1985; p. 199). In Hawai‘i, "cultivated, often as a street tree, now sparingly naturalized in dry to mesic, disturbed areas, 3-50 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 691) "displaces other plants in dry pastures and disturbed natural areas"  (Motooka et al., 2003).  In Fiji, "cultivated in fairly dry areas near sea level and also naturalized in the dry zone along roadsides, etc."  (A. C. Smith, 1985; pp. 81-82). In New Caledonia, "localement naturalisé aujourd'hui, notamment dans les régions de Dumbéa et de Boulouparis" (MacKee, 1994; p. 79). "A drought-tolerant tree well suited to growing under seasonally dry conditions" (Swarbrick, 1997; p. 56).

Sap can cause eye irritation and skin welts.

Propagation:  "The flowers are pollinated by bees, and the seeds are unusual among legumes in that they have large fleshy grightly coloured arils which make them attrative to birds, which disperse the seeds after eating the juicy pulp. Being legumes, the seeds are likely to have prolonged dormancy in the soil." (Swarbrick, 1997; p 56).

Native range:  "Introduced to Guam from Mexico via the Philippines, probably for the tannin content of the bark (25%) and the edible pulp of the fruit.  It has been in Asian countries for a long time.  In Guam it is quite common, especially near villages." (Stone, 1970; pp. 302-303).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 28) Vouchers cited: Falanruw 2195 (US), Fosberg 31564 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Aguijan (Agiguan, Aguihan) Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 34)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Aguijan (Agiguan, Aguihan) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1952) (voucher ID: BISH 155391) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 28) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31747 (US, BISH, Fo), Falanruw 1945 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 28) Voucher cited: Falanruw 2293 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 28) Vouchers cited: Anderson 594 (US, BISH, Fo), Moore 312 (US), Bonham 23 (US,Fo)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 635224) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 1000088) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 155398) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 660183) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 28) Voucher cited: Evans 2338 (US, BISH, Fo, NY)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 441693) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Sarigan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 571767) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 155397) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Chuuk Islands		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1947) (voucher ID: BISH 155405) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Dublon (Tonowas) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1935) (voucher ID: BISH 155403) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Dublon (Tonowas) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1935) (voucher ID: BISH 155404) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Fefan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Fefan Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 29)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Tol Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 29)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. (2000) (p. 29)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 79)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (1998) (p. 22) Planted tree.
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 155402) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 81-82) Voucher cited: DA 328
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 81-82) Vouchers cited: DA 11469, DA 16498, DA 462, Greenwood 745A, DA 3292, DA 14361, Greenwood 745
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 14446) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1969) (voucher ID: BISH 34841) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
French Polynesia French Polynesia Islands	French Polynesia Islands	cultivated	? (year unknown)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 158) Vouchers cited: Setchell & Parks 417, Florence 4661
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 558093) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 302-303) Vouchers cited: Stone 3901 (GUAM), Stone 4985 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 155392) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 155393) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1918) (voucher ID: BISH 155395) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1962) (voucher ID: BISH 155396) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1962) (voucher ID: BISH 155401) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1960) (voucher ID: BISH 402090) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1960) (voucher ID: BISH 567758) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 573295) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 660182) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 660539) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 691-692)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 691-692)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. (2002) (p. 8) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H109917 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 691-692)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 691-692)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 691-692)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 691-692)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 134)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 79) Vouchers cited: Gervais s.n., Le Rat 301, MacKee 4463, MacKee 8320, Veillon 1438, Goy in MacKee 32601
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1956) (voucher ID: BISH 37548) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 94) Reported present by Fosberg but not seen by Space et al.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 16) Not seen on this survey.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 155406) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Johnston Atoll	Johnston Island	introduced cultivated	Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. (1976) (p. 56)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1993) (voucher ID: BISH 633252) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1994) (voucher ID: BISH 659980) Taxon name on voucher: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (pp. 53-54) Specimen in Townsville botanic gardens.
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Japan Ryukyu Islands	Ryukyu Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (pp. 56, 124)
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island		Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. (1971) (p. 151) Voucher cited: Stoddart 817 (K, US)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/envahissant"
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Rodrigues Island	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Seychelles Islands	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2005)

Comments:  A problem species in Hawai‘i, but does not seem to be a major problem in Micronesia.

Control: 

Physical: Mechanical removal is difficult because of resprouting.

Chemical: Larger trees can be cut and the stumps treated with glyphosate to prevent resprouting. Foliar and basal herbicide treatment may be effective on smaller trees and seedlings. "Probably sensitive to foliar application of triclopyr. Sensitive to cut-surface and basal bark applications of triclopyr and to soil applications of bromacil, hexazinone or tebuthiuron. Sensitive to basal bark applications of triclopyr ester at 2% product in diesel or to 20% in low volume applications"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Photo at the University of Guam "Plants of Guam" web site.
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
Fact sheet from "Common forest trees of Hawaii" (PDF format).
Information from the World Agroforestry Centre's AgroForestryTree Database.

Additional online information about Pithecellobium dulce is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Pithecellobium dulce may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Amerson, A. Binion, Jr./Shelton, Philip C. 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 479 pp.

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 155392 (Thompson, J.B. 262).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 155393 (Thompson, J.B. 388).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1918. Voucher specimen #BISH 155395 (Nelson, P. 93).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1935. Voucher specimen #BISH 155403 (Takamatsu, M. 127).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1935. Voucher specimen #BISH 155404 (Takamatsu, M. 100).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 155402 (Takamatsu, M. 1828).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 155397 (Fosberg, F.R. 24898).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 155398 (Fosberg, F.R. 24948).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 573295 (Fosberg, F.R. 25416).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1947. Voucher specimen #BISH 155405 (Wong, C.C.Y. 296).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 155406 (Fosberg, F.R. 32043).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1952. Voucher specimen #BISH 155391 (Kondo, Y.; collector's voucher number unknown).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1956. Voucher specimen #BISH 37548 (McKee, H.S. 4463).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1960. Voucher specimen #BISH 402090 (Dutton, L.S. 121).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1960. Voucher specimen #BISH 567758 (Dutton, L.S. 121).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1962. Voucher specimen #BISH 155396 (Stone, B.C.M. 3901).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1962. Voucher specimen #BISH 155401 (Stone, B.C.M. 3901).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 14446 (Parham, J.W. 14361).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 441693 (Evans, M. 2338).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 571767 (Evans, M. 2338).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 660182 (Evans, M. 1515).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 660183 (Evans, M. 1949).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1969. Voucher specimen #BISH 34841 (Koroiveibau, D. 16498).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 660539 (Fosberg, F.R. 59631).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 558093 (Florence, J. 4661).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 635224 (Herbst, D.R. 7245).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000088 (Herbst, D.R. 7245).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1993. Voucher specimen #BISH 633252 (E.J.Funk Wake 19).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1994. Voucher specimen #BISH 659980 (Herbst, D.R. 9689).

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre. 2005. International Legume Database & Information Service. Online searchable database.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Little, Elbert L./Skolmen, Roger G. 1989. Common forest trees of Hawaii (native and introduced). USDA Agriculture Handbook 679. Washington, D.C. 377 pp. + plates.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 1998. Checklist of the plants of Pohnpei. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 21 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Oppenheimer, Hank L./Bartlett, Randal T. 2002. New plant records from the main Hawaiian Islands. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 69:1-14.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Raulerson, L./Rinehart, A. 1991. Trees and shrubs of the northern Mariana Islands. Saipan: Coastal Resources Management Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands 96950. 119 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

Smith, Clifford W. 1985. Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai‘i's Native Biota. In: Stone, Charles P. and Scott, J. Michael, eds. Hawai‘i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and Management. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Manoa.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane/Mazawa, Thomas R. 2000. Invasive plant species in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 41 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. 1971. Geography and ecology of Diego Garcia Atoll, Chagos Archipelago. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 149. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 237 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Prepared for Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education and the U. S. Army Environmental Center. 111 pp.