Pennisetum purpureum Schumach., Poaceae

Click on an image for links to BIGGER PICTURES

Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

Reject, score: 10 (Go to the risk assessment (Australia)).
High risk, score: 16 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific)).
Reject, score: 18 (Go to the risk assessment  (U.S.)).
Reject, score: 18 (Go to the risk assessment  (U.S. (Florida))).

Other Latin names:  Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone; Pennisetum benthamii Steud.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: xiang cao

English: elephant grass, merker grass, Napier grass

French: canne fourragère, fausse canne à sucre, herbe éléphant

Japanese: pokao

Kosraean: acfucsracsracsr

Palauan: bokso

Pohnpeian: poakso, puk-soh

Samoan: vao povi, vao povi

Spanish: elefante, hierba elefante, pasto elefante, yerba elefante, zacate elefante

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Robust perennial [grass] 2-4 or even 6-7 m tall, culms erect and to 2.5 cm thick near base, branched, distally pubescent; leaves usually pubescent; sheaths often bearded at the nodes; ligule densely hairy, rim-like; blades linear, finely pointed, (20-) 30-50 (-100) cm long, (1-) 1.5-3 (-4) cm wide, margins finely scabrid and razor-sharp; inflorescence spike-like, dense, yellowish or purplish, 8-30 cm long, usually 15 cm or more, 1.5-3 cm thick (excluding the bristles), main axis hairy; bristled numerous, outer ones short, inner ones longer and sparsely short-hairy at base, one long and stout and 2-4 cm long; sterile lemma 5-6 cm long, 5 nerved; fertile lemma 4.5-5 mm long, indistinctly 3-nerved; anther tips usually with tuft of minute hairs" (Stone, 1970; p. 220).

"Grande herbacée pérenne en touffe pouvant atteindre 3 à 4 m de hauteur, reconnaissable à ses longues feuilles de 30 à 120 cm de longueur et ses longues inflorescences de forme cylindrique en « queue de chat » atteignant 30 cm de long, de couleur jaunâtre, parfois pourpre"  (Meyer, 2008; p. 38).

Description from GrassBase.

Habitat/ecology:  "The grass spreads and colonizes wastelands and grows along marshes and ditchbanks, in forest clearings and margins, and in perennial tropical crops.  Although prospering in moist conditions or high rainfall, it can also survive droughts and fires.  It is well adapted to the humid regions of the tropics an, although it grows especially well in lowland areas, it also can grow well at elevations as high as 1,500 m or more. It grows well on a wide range of soils and in many habitats. Although it can persist and compete in dry, sandy soils, it grows best in rich, well-drained soils. It does not grow well in waterlogged soils but does flourish in irrigated lands. It is also very drought-resistant and can survive long dry periods. It colonizes along roadsides, ditchbanks, watercourses in marshy depression, and in open places in forests. In moist rich places it forms reed jungles, thereby eliminating the use of such land for cultivation" (Holm et al., 1977; pp. 367, 369).  Forms dense perennial stands, difficult to penetrate, which inhibits establishment of other vegetation. 

In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in fields, pastures, and along roadsides, especially in mesic to wet sites, 10-1,220 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1579, 1581). In New Caledonia, "parfois spontané et abondant en lieux humides" (MacKee, 1994; p. 61). Arid lowlands and moist uplands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; pp. 242-243).

Propagation:  Seed (wind-dispersed), tillers and cuttings.

Native range:  Tropical Africa, now widely introduced in warm countries.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 52)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 34841) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55) Voucher cited: Whistler 1424
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1974) (voucher ID: BISH 418101) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 12) "It has presumably been introduced to the Island as a pasture grass". Vouchers cited: P. Ralston 11 (A, K), F.C. Allen CHR 224496 (CHR)
Chile (offshore islands) Rapa Nui (Easter) Island	Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua)	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2008) (pp. 38, 42) cf. purpureum. "Nous avons observé une touffe dense dans le jardin botanique de Vaitea" (Meyer, 2008; p. 38).
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Northern Mariana Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 101)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31350 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 589045) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 6)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 589039) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 589043) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 589044) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. 3)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 589040) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8) Subject of eradication program.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 90)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 10) Voucher cited: KW 14092 Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 432419) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 589062) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 133) Vouchers cited: Glassman 2520 (US), Glassman 2580 (US), Takamatsu 907 (BISH)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 60) Voucher cited: P. Raynor 118 (NY, PTBG) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C. (1980) (p. 203) Voucher cited: Fosberg 58529 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 126461) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 126462) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 126463) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 438253) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 589033) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 42822) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 90)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 488582) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 358) Vouchers cited: DA 8292, DA 2063, DA 7960 Likely to become naturalized.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Voucher cited: H.M. Smith 126
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 5028 (PAP) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1967) (voucher ID: BISH 126445) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1967) (voucher ID: BISH 126449) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Vouchers cited: Florence 2506, Whistler & Guerin 26, BRY 26305
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: W.A. Whistler & M. Guérin 28 (PAP) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 492120) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 558119) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1981) (voucher ID: PTBG 38243) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Cultivée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 220) Vouchers cited: Stone 4050 (GUAM), Stone 4705 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 95)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. 3)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 589063) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim (2011) (pp. 30-31) Voucher cited: Starr, Starr & Hagashino 081230-02 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581) Voucher cited: Munro 508 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 22) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H110114 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 12) Voucher: Imada 2003-186 (BISH 697797)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 402208) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (2003) (voucher ID: BISH 697797) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 53)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 100) "Wetlands"
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 381) Abondante en lieux humides.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 61) Voucher cited: Däniker 1672
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 250) Vouchers cited: CHR 168752, CHR 168756
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 6)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 10)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 20)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3096) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schum.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1974) (voucher ID: BISH 589046) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1974) (voucher ID: BNM 10068) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 20)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 90)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Henty, E. E. (1969) (p. 147) A serious pest in young Araucaria plantations at Wau.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 64)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55) Voucher cited: Whistler 2372
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 417644) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 98)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 166) Moderate invader.
Tokelau Tokelau Islands	Tokelau Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (p. 28)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 186)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 186)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 68, 78)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 115)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 343)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 367-371)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 192)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 115)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive cultivated	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 577) "Escape from cultivation; on roadsides".
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 68, 78)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 67) Naturalised
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 367-371)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2011)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 68, 78)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/envahissant"
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Frégate Island		Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. (1983) (p. 58)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2011) Texas
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2011)

Comments:  A major problem in the Galápagos Islands.

One of the most invasive weeds in Papua New Guinea (Warea Orapa, NARI, Papua New Guinea, communications to Aliens listserver)

Apparently recently introduced on Rarotonga, ‘Atiu and Mangaia, Cook Islands, and subject to an eradication program on Mangaia (Space & Flynn, 2002).

Planting of this species is prohibited in Miami-Dade County, Florida (U.S.) (Miami-Dade County Dept. of Planning and Zoning, 2010).

Control: 

Physical:  "Individual plants can be cut out, all rhizomes must be removed"  (Weber, 2003; p. 313).  "Not-withstanding its value as forage, elephant grass has become one of the worst weeds in the tropics because of the difficulty of controlling it in croplands and fallow areas. Cultivation alone is usually insufficient to control it in croplands (Skerman and Riveros 1990). Frequent mowing will cause it to be replaced by other grasses"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

Chemical:  "Larger infestations are controlled by cutting or burning off and treating any regrowth with 2,2-DPA"  (Weber, 2003; p. 313).  "The herbicide glyphosate provides acceptable control in at least aquatic sites (McCann and others 1996)"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

Additional information:
Photos and additional information at University of Florida, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants.
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
Information from the book "Identification and biology of non-native plants in Florida's natural areas" (PDF format).
Fact sheet from the Government of Queensland, Australia. (PDF format).
Fact sheet from "Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions" (PDF format).

Additional online information about Pennisetum purpureum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Pennisetum purpureum as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Pennisetum purpureum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1974. Voucher specimen #BNM10068(Otobed, D.O. P-10068).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1981. Voucher specimen #BNM3096(Timberlake, J. 3096).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 0. Voucher specimen #BISH 438253 (Fosberg, F.R. 58529).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1936. Voucher specimen #BISH 126463 (Takamatsu, M. 907).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 589033 (Fosberg, F.R. 26265).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 589044 (Fosberg, F.R. 25030).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1946. Voucher specimen #BISH 589062 (Fosberg, F.R. 26636).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 126461 (Glassman, S.F. 2520).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 126462 (Glassman, S.F. 2580).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 589040 (Fosberg, F.R. 31270).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 589043 (Fosberg, F.R. 31819).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1950. Voucher specimen #BISH 589045 (Fosberg, F.R. 31350).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1954. Voucher specimen #BISH 589063 (Fosberg, F.R. 35343).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 589039 (Evans, M. 2226).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1967. Voucher specimen #BISH 126445 (Smith, H.M. 126).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1967. Voucher specimen #BISH 126449 (Smith, H.M. 126).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1972. Voucher specimen #BISH 402208 (Herbst, D.R. 2803).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1973. Voucher specimen #BISH 417644 (Whistler, W.A. W720).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1974. Voucher specimen #BISH 418101 (Whistler, W.A. W1424).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1974. Voucher specimen #BISH 589046 (Otobed, D.O. 3).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 432419 (Stemmermann, R.L. 2777).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 488582 (Stemmermann, R.L. 3604).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1981. Voucher specimen #BISH 558119 (Whistler, W.A. 26).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 492120 (Florence, J. 2506).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 2003. Voucher specimen #BISH 697797 (C.Imada 2003-186).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control. Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. 208 pp.

Edgar, E./Connor, H. 2000. Flora of New Zealand, vol. V: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press. .

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C. 1980. Noteworthy Micronesian plants 4. Micronesica 16(2):201-210.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Francis, John K., ed. 2009. Wildland Shrubs of the United States and its Territories: Thamnic Descriptions General Technical Report IITF-WB-1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service International Institute of Tropical Forestry and Shrub Sciences Laboratory (online resource).

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar. 1980. Grass weeds, vol. 1. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 142 pp. + plates.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henty, E. E. 1969. A manual of the grasses of New Guinea. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bull. No. 1. Lae, New Guinea. 215 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. 1977. The world’s worst weeds: distribution and biology. East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii. 609 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Langeland, K. A./Burks, K. Craddock. eds. 1998. Identification and biology of non-native plants in Florida's natural areas. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida. 165 pp.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lawesson, J. E. 1990. Alien plants in the Galapagos Islands: a summary. Monogr. Sys. Bot. Missouri Bot. Garden 32:15-20.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2008. Rapport de mission d'expertise a Rapa Nui du 02 au 11 Juin 2008: Plan d'action strategique pour lutter contre les plantes introduites envahissantes sur Rapa Nui (Île de pâques) [Strategic action plan to control invasive alien plants on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 62 pp. .

Miami-Dade County Dept. of Planning and Zoning. 2010. The landscape manual. Draft ninth edition, August 2010. 249 pp.

Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro. 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research 8(2)/2004: 171-191.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 1981. Voucher specimen #PTBG38243(Art Whistler W 4842).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2001. Voucher specimen #PTBG34841(David H. Lorence 8580).

Oppenheimer, Hank L. 2003. New plant records from Maui and Hawai‘i Counties. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2001-2002. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 73:3-30.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. 2003. Botanical and ethnobotanical inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii and Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.

Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. 1983. Vegetation of Frégate Island, Seychelles. In: Sachet, M. H., D. R. Stoddart, and F. R. Fosberg. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 253 pp.

Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. 2003. Invasive alien species in the Austral-Pacific Region: National Reports & Directory of Resources. Global Invasive Species Programme, Cape Town, South Africa. 185 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Soria, M./Taylor, U./Tye, A./Wilkenson, S. R. 2002. Identificación y manajo de malezas en las isles Galapágos. Fundación Charles Darwin, Parque Nacional Galapágos. 69 pp.

Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 103 pp.

Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 227 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane. 2000. Invasive plant species on Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 31 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim. 2011. New plant records from midway Atoll, Maui and Kaho‘olawe. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2009-2010. Part II: Plants. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 110:23-35.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

U. S. Government. 2011. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) (on-line resource).

U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. 2011. The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1993. The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 141 pp.

Waterhouse, D. F. 1997. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture and plantation forestry in the Southern and Western Pacific. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 93 pp.

Weber, Ewald. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 548 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 2000. Plants in Samoan culture: The ethnobotany of Samoa. Isle Botanica. 234 pp. ISB: 0-9645426-6-8.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.

Wu, Te-lin. 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised). 384 pp.

Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong. 2011. Flora of China (online resource).