Pennisetum purpureum Schumach., Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

Reject, score: 10 (Go to the risk assessment (Australia)).
High risk, score: 16 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific)).
Reject, score: 18 (Go to the risk assessment  (U.S.)).
Reject, score: 18 (Go to the risk assessment  (U.S. (Florida))).

Other Latin names:  Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone; Pennisetum benthamii Steud.

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: xiang cao

English: Napier grass, elephant grass, merker grass

French: canne fourragère, fausse canne à sucre, herbe éléphant

Japanese: pokao

Kosraean: acfucsracsracsr

Palauan: bokso

Pohnpeian: poakso, puk-soh

Samoan: vao povi

Spanish: elefante, hierba elefante, pasto elefante, yerba elefante, zacate elefante

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Robust perennial [grass] 2-4 or even 6-7 m tall, culms erect and to 2.5 cm thick near base, branched, distally pubescent; leaves usually pubescent; sheaths often bearded at the nodes; ligule densely hairy, rim-like; blades linear, finely pointed, (20-) 30-50 (-100) cm long, (1-) 1.5-3 (-4) cm wide, margins finely scabrid and razor-sharp; inflorescence spike-like, dense, yellowish or purplish, 8-30 cm long, usually 15 cm or more, 1.5-3 cm thick (excluding the bristles), main axis hairy; bristled numerous, outer ones short, inner ones longer and sparsely short-hairy at base, one long and stout and 2-4 cm long; sterile lemma 5-6 cm long, 5 nerved; fertile lemma 4.5-5 mm long, indistinctly 3-nerved; anther tips usually with tuft of minute hairs" (Stone, 1970; p. 220).

"Grande herbacée pérenne en touffe pouvant atteindre 3 à 4 m de hauteur, reconnaissable à ses longues feuilles de 30 à 120 cm de longueur et ses longues inflorescences de forme cylindrique en « queue de chat » atteignant 30 cm de long, de couleur jaunâtre, parfois pourpre"  (Meyer, 2008; p. 38).

Description from GrassBase.

Habitat/ecology:  "The grass spreads and colonizes wastelands and grows along marshes and ditchbanks, in forest clearings and margins, and in perennial tropical crops.  Although prospering in moist conditions or high rainfall, it can also survive droughts and fires.  It is well adapted to the humid regions of the tropics an, although it grows especially well in lowland areas, it also can grow well at elevations as high as 1,500 m or more. It grows well on a wide range of soils and in many habitats. Although it can persist and compete in dry, sandy soils, it grows best in rich, well-drained soils. It does not grow well in waterlogged soils but does flourish in irrigated lands. It is also very drought-resistant and can survive long dry periods. It colonizes along roadsides, ditchbanks, watercourses in marshy depression, and in open places in forests. In moist rich places it forms reed jungles, thereby eliminating the use of such land for cultivation" (Holm et al., 1977; pp. 367, 369).  Forms dense perennial stands, difficult to penetrate, which inhibits establishment of other vegetation. 

In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in fields, pastures, and along roadsides, especially in mesic to wet sites, 10-1,220 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1579, 1581). In New Caledonia, "parfois spontané et abondant en lieux humides" (MacKee, 1994; p. 61). Arid lowlands and moist uplands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; pp. 242-243).

Propagation:  Seed (wind-dispersed), tillers and cuttings.

Native range:  Tropical Africa, now widely introduced in warm countries.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island	introduced	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 52)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 34841) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55) Voucher cited: Whistler 1424
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1974) (voucher ID: BISH 418101) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 12) "It has presumably been introduced to the Island as a pasture grass". Vouchers cited: P. Ralston 11 (A, K), F.C. Allen CHR 224496 (CHR)
Chile (offshore islands) Rapa Nui (Easter) Island	Rapa Nui (Easter) Island (Isla de Pasqua)	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2008) (pp. 38, 42) cf. purpureum. "Nous avons observé une touffe dense dans le jardin botanique de Vaitea" (Meyer, 2008; p. 38).
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Anatahan Island		Wagner, W. L./ Herbst, D. R./Weitzman, A./Lorence, D.H. (2013)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Northern Mariana Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 101)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 14) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31350 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 589045) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Denslow, Julie S./Nelson, Duane (2000) (p. 6)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 589039) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 589043) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 589044) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. 3)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Saipan	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1950) (voucher ID: BISH 589040) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8) Subject of eradication program.
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2013)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 8)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 90)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 10) Voucher cited: KW 14092 Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 432419) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 589062) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 133) Vouchers cited: Glassman 2520 (US), Glassman 2580 (US), Takamatsu 907 (BISH)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 60) Voucher cited: P. Raynor 118 (NY, PTBG) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C. (1980) (p. 203) Voucher cited: Fosberg 58529 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 126461) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 126462) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1936) (voucher ID: BISH 126463) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (year unknown) (voucher ID: BISH 438253) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1946) (voucher ID: BISH 589033) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 42822) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 90)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 488582) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 358) Vouchers cited: DA 8292, DA 2063, DA 7960 Likely to become naturalized.
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Voucher cited: H.M. Smith 126
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: J. Florence 5028 (PAP) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1967) (voucher ID: BISH 126445) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1967) (voucher ID: BISH 126449) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Vouchers cited: Florence 2506, Whistler & Guerin 26, BRY 26305
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Voucher cited: W.A. Whistler & M. Guérin 28 (PAP) Cultivée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 492120) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1981) (voucher ID: BISH 558119) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1981) (voucher ID: PTBG 38243) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2013) Cultivée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 220) Vouchers cited: Stone 4050 (GUAM), Stone 4705 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 95)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. 3)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1954) (voucher ID: BISH 589063) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim (2011) (pp. 30-31) Voucher cited: Starr, Starr & Hagashino 081230-02 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581) Voucher cited: Munro 508 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank L. (2003) (p. 22) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer H110114 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1579, 1581)
Japan (offshore islands) Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 12) Voucher: Imada 2003-186 (BISH 697797)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1972) (voucher ID: BISH 402208) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (2003) (voucher ID: BISH 697797) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 53)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 100) "Wetlands"
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 381) Abondante en lieux humides.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 61) Voucher cited: Däniker 1672
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 250) Vouchers cited: CHR 168752, CHR 168756
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 6)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 10)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 20)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3096) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schum.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1974) (voucher ID: BISH 589046) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Koror (Oreor) Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1974) (voucher ID: BNM 10068) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Malakal (Ngemelachel) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Malakal (Ngemelachel) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Malakal (Ngemelachel) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 20)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Peleliu (Beliliou) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 55)
Palau Palau (Belau ) (main island group)	Peleliu (Beliliou) Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 90)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	introduced invasive cultivated	Henty, E. E. (1969) (p. 147) A serious pest in young Araucaria plantations at Wau.
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 64)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55) Voucher cited: Whistler 2372
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1973) (voucher ID: BISH 417644) Taxon name on voucher: Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 98)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Shine, C./Reaser, J. K./Gutierrez, A. T., eds. (2003) (p. 166) Moderate invader.
Tokelau Tokelau Islands	Tokelau Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (p. 28)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Northern Territory	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 186)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive cultivated	Csurhes, S./Edwards, R. (1998) (p. 186)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 68, 78)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	El Salvador (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Central America Central America (Pacific rim)	Honduras (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 115)
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 343)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 367-371)
Japan Japan	Japan	introduced	Mito, Toshikazu/Uesugi, Tetsuro (2004) (p. 192)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 115)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive cultivated	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 577) "Escape from cultivation; on roadsides".
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 68, 78)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 67) Naturalised
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Colombia	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
South America (Pacific rim) South America (Pacific rim)	Perú (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 372)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (pp. 367-371)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (California)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 68, 78)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/envahissant"
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Frégate Island		Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. (1983) (p. 58)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013) Texas
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2013)

Comments:  A major problem in the Galápagos Islands.

One of the most invasive weeds in Papua New Guinea (Warea Orapa, NARI, Papua New Guinea, communications to Aliens listserver)

Apparently recently introduced on Rarotonga, ‘Atiu and Mangaia, Cook Islands, and subject to an eradication program on Mangaia (Space & Flynn, 2002).

Planting of this species is prohibited in Miami-Dade County, Florida (U.S.) (Miami-Dade County Dept. of Planning and Zoning, 2010).

Control: 

Physical:  "Individual plants can be cut out, all rhizomes must be removed"  (Weber, 2003; p. 313).  "Not-withstanding its value as forage, elephant grass has become one of the worst weeds in the tropics because of the difficulty of controlling it in croplands and fallow areas. Cultivation alone is usually insufficient to control it in croplands (Skerman and Riveros 1990). Frequent mowing will cause it to be replaced by other grasses"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

Chemical:  "Larger infestations are controlled by cutting or burning off and treating any regrowth with 2,2-DPA"  (Weber, 2003; p. 313).  "The herbicide glyphosate provides acceptable control in at least aquatic sites (McCann and others 1996)"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).