Passiflora suberosa L., Passifloraceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

English: corky passionflower, corkystem passionflower, devil's pumpkin, indigo berry, wild passionfruit

French: grain d'encre, grenadille, liane poc-poc, passiflore

Hawaiian: huehue haole

Spanish: uvilla

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Perennial tendrillous vine; glabrous; stems commonly purplish; leaves 3-lobed or entire, 4-8 cm long, if lobed the central lobe largest, acute; petiole 1-2.5 cm long, with 2 opposed glands; flowers solitary in axils; sepals yellow-green; inner coronal fringe purple; petals absent; flower 18-25 mm broad; pedicel 1.5-2.5 cm long; fruit subglobose, purple, nearly 1 cm think; seeds wrinkled, 3-4 mm long" (Stone, 1970; p. 431).

Habitat/ecology:  An aggressive weed. It does best in the subcanopy layers where it smothers shrubs, small trees and the ground layer. In some areas it also smothers the upper canopy layer (C.W. Smith, 1985; p. 197). In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in grassland, shrubland, open dry forest, and diverse mesic forest, and on exposed ridges, 0-610 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1014); "smothers tall trees in mesic forests"  (Motooka et al., 2003).  In New Caledonia, "d'introduction paraît-il relativement récente; devenu très répandu et parfois abondant dans la végétation secondaire" (MacKee, 1994; p. 113). In the Galápagos Islands, "among shrubs and rocks, mostly in shady areas, from near sea level to about 615 m" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; pp. 723-724).

Propagation:  The fruits have many seeds that are dispersed by frugivorous birds.

Native range:  Tropical America.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 175)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 401468) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 401474) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 567844) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie (1999) (p. Field notes.)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Raulerson, L. (2006) (p. 48)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 666-667) Voucher cited: Smith 7923
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 168905) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 666-667) Vouchers cited: Smith 8087, Smith 7288, Greenwood 730
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1928) (voucher ID: BISH 168904) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 168906) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 168907) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 666-667) Voucher cited: DA 10518
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 666-667) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 730B, DA 7936, DA 11222, DA 3810, DA 11536, DA 3779
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1958) (voucher ID: BISH 14698) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Fiji Fiji Islands	Wakaya Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (pp. 666-667) Voucher cited: Tothill 187
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island		University of California (2006) "Found at higher elevations in moist habitats".
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 213) Vouchers cited: Florence 9735, Fosberg & Stone 61326, Fosberg 62924, Fosberg 61056, BRY 26026
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 491679) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1988) (voucher ID: BISH 601519) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1982) (voucher ID: BISH 607245) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 431) Vouchers cited: Stone 4235 (GUAM), Stone 4754 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 175)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 23007) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1962) (voucher ID: BISH 168868) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1963) (voucher ID: BISH 168869) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1965) (voucher ID: BISH 401471) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 649477) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1967) (voucher ID: BISH 698953) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1983) (voucher ID: BISH 1000208) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1014)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy W./Wagner, Warren L. (1995) (p. 43) Vouchers cited: L. Hume 304 (PTBG), T. Flynn et al. 3173 (PTBG) Naturalized in secondary forest.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Shannon, Robynn K./Herbst, Derral R. (1997) (p. 60) Voucher cited: Hobdy 3293 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1014) West Maui.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. (2006) (p. 38) East Maui. Voucher cited: Starr & Starr 040116-1 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1014) Voucher cited: Forbes 2363.0 (BISH)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 113-114) Vouchers cited: Cheesman 3319, MacKee 28262
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1962) (voucher ID: BISH 168903) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Îles Ouvéa (Ouvea Atoll)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 113-114) Voucher cited: Blanchon 1489
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Tiga	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 113-114) Voucher cited: MacKee 45852
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Walpole	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 113-114) Vouchers cited: Hmakone & Sam in MacKee 25879, Benoit in MacKee 34397
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	introduced invasive	Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe (1996) (p. 382) Devenue très répandue et parfois abondante dans les formations secondaires.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Améré	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 113-114) Voucher cited: MacKee 37535
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 113-114) Vouchers cited: Franc 1364, Däniker 2, MacKee 1974, Suprin 466 (NOU)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1949) (voucher ID: BISH 10855) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 113-114) Vouchers cited: Baumann 13830, MacKee 5031
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1989) (voucher ID: BISH 634797) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 82)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 67)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 97)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 62)
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Aneityum Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1986) (voucher ID: BISH 523787) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Aneityum Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1985) (voucher ID: BISH 524026) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Êfaté (Efete) Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1971) (voucher ID: BISH 406121) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Erromango Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1978) (voucher ID: BISH 421399) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora suberosa L.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 269-270)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Costa Rica Costa Rica	Costa Rica (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
El Salvador El Salvador	El Salvador (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Guatemala Guatemala	Guatemala (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Honduras Honduras	Honduras (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 269-270)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
British Indian Ocean Territory Chagos Archipelago	Diego Garcia Island	introduced	Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. (1971) (p. 155) Vouchers cited: Stoddart 768 (K), Stoddart 765 (K), Stoddart 868 (K, US), Stoddart 881 (K), Rhyne 439a (US)?, Stoddart 847 (K, US)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. (1991) (pp. 51-61)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Naturalisé"
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 269-270)

Comments:  Introduced to Guam sometime after 1945, recorded from Fiji in 1942 (Stone, 1970; p. 431). Locally a problem in Guam and Saipan; more common as an invasive on Tinian.

Control: 

Chemical: "Probably sensitive to hormone type herbicides but may require basal treatments to protect host plants. Young plants susceptible to drizzle applications of glyphosate at 1 lb/acre"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:  Information from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).

Additional online information about Passiflora suberosa is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Passiflora suberosa may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1928. Voucher specimen #BISH 168904 (Gillespie, J.W. 4407).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1949. Voucher specimen #BISH 10855 (Bryan Jr, E.H. 1585).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 168905 (Smith, A.C. 7923).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 168906 (Smith, A.C. 8087).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 168907 (Smith, A.C. 7288).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1958. Voucher specimen #BISH 14698 (Ledua, M. 11222).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1962. Voucher specimen #BISH 168868 (Stone, B.C.M. 4235).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1962. Voucher specimen #BISH 168903 (Krauss, N.L.H. 740).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1963. Voucher specimen #BISH 168869 (Stone, B.C.M. 4754).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1965. Voucher specimen #BISH 401471 (Fosberg, F.R. 46212).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1967. Voucher specimen #BISH 698953 (Pereda, V.P.; collector's voucher number unknown).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 23007 (Cushing-Falanruw, M.V. 838).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 401468 (Fosberg, F.R. 50550).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 401474 (Fosberg, F.R. 50550).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 567844 (Fosberg, F.R. 50550).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1971. Voucher specimen #BISH 406121 (Raynal, J. 16025).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1978. Voucher specimen #BISH 421399 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1597).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 491679 (Florence, J. 2275).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1982. Voucher specimen #BISH 607245 (Fosberg, F.R. 63810).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 649477 (Herbst, D.R. 7147).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1983. Voucher specimen #BISH 1000208 (Herbst, D.R. 7147).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1985. Voucher specimen #BISH 524026 (Krauss, N.H.L 2031).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1986. Voucher specimen #BISH 523787 (Krauss, N.H.L 2019).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1988. Voucher specimen #BISH 601519 (J.Florence 9735).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1989. Voucher specimen #BISH 634797 (Bishop, R. P-10192).

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Gargominy, Oliver/Bouchet, Philipe/Pascal, Michel/Jaffre, Tanguy/Tourneu, Jean-Christophe. 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 51:375-401.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy W./Wagner, Warren L. 1995. Contributions to the flora of Hawai‘i. III. New additions, range extensions, and rediscoveries of flowering plants. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Miller, Scott, E., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 41:19-58.

MacDonald, I. A. W./Thebaud, C./Strahm, W. A./Strasberg, D. 1991. Effects of alien plant invasions on native vegetation remnants on La Reunion (Mascarenes Islands, Indian Ocean). Environmental Conservation 18 (1):51-61.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/ Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Raulerson, L. 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. University of Guam Herbarium Contribution 40:1-69. .

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Smith, Clifford W. 1985. Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai‘i's Native Biota. In: Stone, Charles P. and Scott, J. Michael, eds. Hawai‘i's terrestrial ecosystems: preservation and Management. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Manoa.

Space, James C./Falanruw, Marjorie. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd L. 2006. New plant records from the Hawaiian Archipelago. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucias G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2004-2005. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 87:31-43.

Stoddart, D. R./Taylor, J. D., eds. 1971. Geography and ecology of Diego Garcia Atoll, Chagos Archipelago. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 149. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 237 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

U. S. Government. 2006. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) (on-line resource).

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2007. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. 2005. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

University of California. 2006. Moorea Digital Flora Project (online resource).

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Wagner, Warren L./Shannon, Robynn K./Herbst, Derral R. 1997. Contributions to the flora of Hawai‘i. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Miller, Scott, E., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1996. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 48:51-65.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Wiggins, I. L./Porter, D. M. 1971. Flora of the Galapágos Islands. Stanford University Press. 998 pp.