Passiflora edulis Sims, Passifloraceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Low risk (based on second screen), score: 6 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: ji dan guo

English: black passionfruit, maracuya, passion fruit, passionflower, purple granadilla, purple passion fruit, purple water lemon, qarandila, yellow passion fruit

French: fruit de la passion, grenadille, grenadine

Hawaiian: liliko‘i

Maori (Cook Islands): ka‘atene papa‘ā, katingapapa‘ā, pārapōutini papa‘ā

Palauan: kudamono

Pohnpeian: pompom, pwompwomw

Samoan: pāsio, pāsio, pāsio esi, pāsio esi, pāsio fai vai inu, pāsio fai vai inu

Spanish: maracuyá

Tongan: vaine, vaine Tonga

Yapese: lelbuy, tumatis

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Glabrous, perennial, tendril climber; stems sometimes " angular, up to 15 m high.  Leaves:  Deeply three-lobed, lobes elliptic to oblong, apex pointed, shortly tapering, margins serrated, glossy dark-green above, stipules small, linear-lanceolate to 10 mm long.  Flowers:  White, except base of corona which is purple; caronal filaments curly, as long as petals; 50-75 mm across. Fruits:  Globose berries, greenish-yellow turning deep purple, glabrous, to 60 mm long, pulp sweet and edible, rind hard" (Henderson, 1995; p. 106).

Habitat/ecology:  "Altitude and latitude do not appear to be a constraint other than through the temperatures associated with them. Purple passionfruit grows best in a subtropical climate, and the yellow passionfruit prefers a tropical climate with fullseason warm days and nights. Generally, annual rainfall should be at least 900 mm. Rainfall in Indian areas that grow passionfruit ranges from 1000 to 2500 mm/year (Morton 1987). The species is shallow-rooted but withstands drought by defoliating. Passionfruit tolerates a wide variety of soils and grows best on well-drained sandy loams with pH's of 6.5 to 7.5 (Morton 1987). Passionfruit is moderately intolerant of shade, requires trees, brush, or fences for support, and benefits from but does not require soil disturbance for reproduction. Wild plants are found in broken forests, stream-bottom galleries, fencerows, abandoned farms, and neglected city lots. Young plants are eaten by livestock, so passionfruit is almost never found in moderate to heavily grazed areas"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).  Cultivated for fruit, from which it may escape. Smothers trees and shrubs. 

In Hawai‘i, "cultivated and naturalized in mesic forest and shrubland, 80-1,220 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1010-1011).  In Fiji, "a cultivated and sparingly naturalized vine found from near sea level to an elevation of 850 m"  (Smith, 1981; p. 668). In New Caledonia, "parfois cultivé; assez répandu en fourrés secondaires" (MacKee, 1994; p. 113). Moist uplands in the Galápagos Islands (McMullen, 1999; p. 302).

Propagation:  Seed; often planted by humans. Seeds spread by animals; in Hawai‘i, especially by feral pigs. Birds may also spread the seeds.

Native range:  "The purple passionfruit is a native of southern Brazil through Paraguay to northern Argentina. The yellow form of passionfruit is probably native of the Amazon region of Brazil (Morton 1987)"  (Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced	Pickard, J. (1984) (p. 207)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Lord Howe Island	Lord Howe Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 20) "This species is widely cultivated for its fruit. It is much liked by fruit-eating birds and often spread by them into the wild". Vouchers cited: R.D. Hoogland 8778 (CANB), A.C. Beauglehole 5799 (CANB)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 10) "This species is widely cultivated for its fruit. It is much liked by fruit-eating birds and often spread by them into the wild". Voucher cited: G. Uhe 1159 (K)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 76)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 82)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1991) (voucher ID: BISH 665098) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 88)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 93)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 99)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1977) (voucher ID: BISH 420173) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 21) Purple-fruited cultivar.
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 174-175)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 120) Voucher cited: M.J. Balick 4082 (NY, PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2000) (voucher ID: PTBG 38798) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 174-175)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1981) (p. 668) Vouchers cited: DA 15093, DA 12252, DA 7363
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 212) Vouchers cited: Petard 1986:236, Florence 6655
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1984) (voucher ID: BISH 541764) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rapa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 174-175) Cultivated?
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1966) (voucher ID: BISH 652692) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1966) (voucher ID: PTBG 22230) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1010-1011)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1010-1011)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1010-1011)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1010-1011)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Hughes, Guy D'Oyly (1995) (p. 7) Voucher cited: Hughes 107 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1010-1011)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 174-175) Cultivated? Presence not verified.
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 31197) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1968) (voucher ID: BISH 648531) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (pp. 174-175)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 102)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 114)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 180)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 113) Vouchers cited: Administration Pénitentiaire 118, Baumann & Guillaumin 7191, MacKee 22939
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (pp. 126-127)
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. (1996) (pp. 459-460) Subject of control program.
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 936) "Well-established on Raoul Island where it grows so abundantly on and near the forest margin in some places that attempts have been made to eliminate it".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 162) Voucher cited: CHR 169819
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 24)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 86) Voucher cited: Yuncker 10140 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 45)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 86)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 81)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 43) Voucher cited: Fosberg & B. Christian 11218
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 97)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘ano Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 73)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 191) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15666 Sometimes escapes.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1953) (voucher ID: BISH 168842) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1960) (voucher ID: BISH 168843) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 55)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Bishop Museum (Honolulu) (1980) (voucher ID: BISH 436745) Taxon name on voucher: Passiflora edulis Sims
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced cultivated	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-11)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis (‘Uvea) Island	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2007) (p. 37)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Queensland Herbarium (2002) (p. 6)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	introduced invasive cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Cultivated, escaped in forests in mountain valleys; 100-1900 m. Fujian, Guangdong, Yunnan.
China China	Hong Kong	introduced cultivated	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 104)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Owen, S. J. (1997)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive cultivated	Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. (1988) (p. 936)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced cultivated	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 67) Cultivated only
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Cultivated, escaped in forests in mountain valleys; 100-1900 m.

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 122)
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Lavergne, Christophe (2006) "Cultivé/naturalisé"
Maldives Maldive Islands	Malè Atoll	cultivated	Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 27)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
South Africa South Africa	South Africa (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Henderson, Lesley (1995) (p. 106)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced invasive	Francis, John K., ed. (2009)

Comments:  A problem species in New Zealand and South Africa.

Control: 

Chemical:  "Difficult if growing over non-target plants. Sensitive to triclopyr ester at 10% product in oil applied to individual vines (Pat Bily, TNC). May also be controlled by treating foliage on ground, cutting the stems at base of hosts and treatmenting the weed stump"  (Motooka et al., 2003).

Additional information:
Excerpt from the book "Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide" (Motooka et al., 2003). (PDF format).
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
Fact sheet from "Wildland shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions" (PDF format).

Additional online information about Passiflora edulis is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Passiflora edulis as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Passiflora edulis may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1953. Voucher specimen #BISH 168842 (Yuncker, T.G. 15666).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1960. Voucher specimen #BISH 168843 (Hotta, M. 5472).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1966. Voucher specimen #BISH 652692 (Evans, M. 1759).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 31197 (Adair, F. 187).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1968. Voucher specimen #BISH 648531 (Adair, F. 187).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1977. Voucher specimen #BISH 420173 (Krauss, N.L.H. 1545).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1980. Voucher specimen #BISH 436745 (Palmer, M. 107).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1984. Voucher specimen #BISH 541764 (Florence, J. 6655).

Bishop Museum (Honolulu). 1991. Voucher specimen #BISH 665098 (Sykes, W.R. 474789).

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Fosberg, F. R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 58. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 37 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Francis, John K., ed. 2009. Wildland Shrubs of the United States and its Territories: Thamnic Descriptions General Technical Report IITF-WB-1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service International Institute of Tropical Forestry and Shrub Sciences Laboratory (online resource).

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Henderson, Lesley. 1995. Plant invaders of Southern Africa. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 5, Agriculture Research Council, ARC/LNR, Pretoria, South Africa. 177 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Hughes, Guy D'Oyly. 1995. New Hawaiian plant records II. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Miller, Scott, E., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 42:1-10.

Lavergne, Christophe. 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a La Reunion. Unpublished manuscript (Excel file). .

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

McMullen, C. K. 1999. Flowering plants of the Galápagos. Comstock Pub. Assoc., Ithaca, N.Y. 370 p.

Merlin, M./Kigfas, A./Keene, T./Juvik, J. 1996. Giddi nge gakiiy nu Wa‘ab: Plants, People and Ecology in Yap State. Program on Environment, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, 121 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Castro, Luisa/Nelson, Duane/Nagai, Guy/Ching, Lincoln. 2003. Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 184 pp.

Motooka, Philip/Ching, Lincoln/Nagai, Guy. 2002. Herbicidal Weed Control Methods for Pasture and Natural Areas of Hawaii. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i. CTAHR free publication WC-8.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Owen, S. J. 1997. Ecological weeds on conservation land in New Zealand: A database. Working draft. Wellington, New Zealand. Department of Conservation.

Pickard, J. 1984. Exotic plants on Lord Howe Island: Distribution in space and time, 1853-1981. J. of Biogeography 11:181-208.

Queensland Herbarium. 2002. Invasive Naturalised Plants in Southeast Queensland, alphabetical by genus. Modified from: Batianoff, George N. and Butler, Don W. (2002). Assessment of Invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland. Appendix. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 27-34. 11 pp.

Raulerson, L./Rinehart, A. F./Falanruw, M. C. 1996. A botanical reconnaissance of the proposed Compact-impact road alignment on Babeldaob Island, Republic of Palau. U. of Guam Herbarium Cont. No. 32. 78 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1981. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 2. 810 pp.

Soria, M./Taylor, U./Tye, A./Wilkenson, S. R. 2002. Identificación y manajo de malezas en las isles Galapágos. Fundación Charles Darwin, Parque Nacional Galapágos. 69 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

St. John, H. 1987. An account of the flora of Pitcairn Island with new Pandanus species. Pacific Plant Studies 46. Honolulu, 65 pp. [Privately published].

Staples, George W./Herbst, Derral/Imada, Clyde T. 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawai‘i. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers No. 65. 35 pp.

Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd. 2008. Botanical survey of Midway Atoll. Prepared for: United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 27 pp. plus appendices.

Swarbrick, J. T. 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean: a report to Parks Australia. 101 pp. plus appendix.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1977. Kermadec Islands flora: an annotated checklist. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 219, Wellington. 216 pp.

Sykes, W. R./West, C. J. 1996. New records and other information on the vascular flora of the Kermadec Islands. New Zealand Journal of Botany 34:447-462.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

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Vander Velde, Nancy. 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Atoll Research Bulletin No. 503:1-141.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Webb, C. J./Sykes, W. R./Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand, Volume IV: Naturalised pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch. 1365 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

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Whistler, W. A. 1991. The ethnobotany of Tonga: The plants, their Tongan names, and their uses. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Botany 2. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 155 pp. ISBN 0-930897-57-9.

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