Paspalum scrobiculatum L., Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Threat only at high elevations?  no

Other Latin names:  Paspalum cartilagineum Presl.?, Paspalum orbiculare G. Forst.*

Common name(s): [more details]

English: creeping paspalum, ditch millet, Indian paspalum, kodo millet, native Paspalum, rice grass, water couch

Fijian: co duru levu, tho ndina, tho nduru levu, tho ni ndina

French: herbe à épée

Hawaiian: mau‘u laiki

Kwara‘ae: karasi

Maori (Cook Islands): mata, mātā, mātā, mātā, mātā, mātā

Palauan: desum

Spanish: mijo koda

Tahitian: nonoha

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Tufted perennial [grass] up to 120-150 cm tall; culms stout, erect, glabrous, somewhat bulbous at base, sheaths 7-14 cm long, glabrous or with sparse hairs at the collar, compressed, basal ones often purplish; ligule very short, but with a dense row of hairs just behind it; blades flat, 12-40 cm long, 3-12 mm wide, acute, scabrous, glaucous on upper surface; inflorescence of 4-6 racemes, these 2-4 cm long, alternate, distant, their axis 4-9 cm long, villous at base, sometimes pilose in the axils; rachis 1-1.5 mm wide, scabrous, usually reddish on the margins; spikelets paired, 2-2.5 mm long, broadly elliptic, imbricate, glabrous; second glume and sterile lemma 3-nerved; fertile lemma indurated, finely pitted; caryopsis 1.5 mm long, compressed-elliptic, pale"  (Stone, 1970; p. 218).

"The character used to distinguish Paspalum orbiculare and P. scrobiculatum, the presence of single or paired spikelets in the raceme, is a weak one.  Other differences in spikelet shape and coloration are equally unreliable in providing a basis for maintaining these as separate species"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1576-1577).

Description from World Grass Species.

Habitat/ecology:  "In Fiji, abundant at elevations up to 1,300 m in clearings, along roadsides, in pastures, ditches, waste land, etc." (Smith, 1979; pp. 338-339).  In Hawai‘i, "common on slopes in poor, thin soil where few other grasses will grow, and in wet, swampy ground, 0-1,070 m (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 1576-1577). In New Caledonia, "spontané mais peu commun en formations secondaires" (MacKee, 1994; p. 61).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Tropical Asia, probably an aboriginal introduction to parts of the Pacific.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Voucher cited: Whistler 2989
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Vouchers cited: Whistler 1365, Whistler 1395, Whistler 3307
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Whistler, W. A. (1980) (p. 163)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	native	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 12) "This species appears not to have been recorded recently". Vouchers cited: W. Laing (CHR); Nov. 1898, I. Robinson (NSW); Nov. 1902, J.H. Maiden & J.L. Boorman (NSW)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Alamagan Island	native	Ohba, T. (1994) (p. 65) Paspalum orbiculare Voucher cited: CBM-BS-58854
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Asuncion Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 14) Paspalum orbiculare Vouchers cited: Falanruw 2299 (US), Falanruw 2307 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Guguan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Guguan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 14) Paspalum orbiculare Voucher cited: Falanruw 1852 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) P. orbiculare, P. cartilagineum
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Pagan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 14) Paspalum orbiculare Vouchers cited: Fosberg 31398 (US), Anderson 559 (US, BISH, Fo, NY, L), Moore 412 (US)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum varieties cartilagineum and biglumaceum
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1982) (pp. 80-82) Paspalum cartilagineum var. biglumaceum Fosberg & Sachet; voucher cited: Necker RS-292 (US, holotype)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island		McCormack, Gerald (2007)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Chuuk Islands	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1982) (pp. 80-82) Paspalum cartilagineum var. biglumaceum Fosberg & Sachet; voucher cited: Wong 245 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Fefan Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Lukunor (Núkúnooch) Atoll	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island		Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2005) (p. 10) Voucher cited: Flynn 6075 (PTBG)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (p. 132) Also Paspalum orbiculare, vouchers cited: Takamatsu 629 (BM), Glassman 2764 (US); Paspalum cartilagineum, voucher cited: Glassman 2438 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1982) (pp. 80-82) Paspalum cartilagineum var. biglumaceum Fosberg & Sachet; vouchers cited: Nakao in 1941 (KYO), Glassman 2764 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Fais Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. (1969) (p. 3) Var. auriculatum (Presl) Merr. Voucher cited: Fosberg 46674 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Voucher cited: DA 9074
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 834
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Vouchers cited: MacGillivray & Milne, Smith 7970
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Voucher cited: DA 1349
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rambi Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Voucher cited: DA 3083
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Voucher cited: DA 8892
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Vouchers cited: Smith 6881, DA 8765, DA 8867
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 1091
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (pp. 338-339) Vouchers cited: DA 8231, DA 8264, Smith 4260, DA 7990, DA 8626, Smith 8831, DA 7324, DA 8134, DA 7508, DA 9606, DA 7767, DA 7723, DA 1173
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	native	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Voucher cited: Bare 88
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 15) Paspalum orbiculare Forst. f.; voucher cited: Fosberg 64788 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mehetia (Mahetia, Meetia) Island	native	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Voucher cited: Grant 4678
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	native	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Voucher cited: Fosberg 60945
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	native	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Vouchers cited: Moore 18, BRY 25402?, BRY 26361
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	native	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Voucher cited: Florence 10599
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	native	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342) Voucher cited: Grant 3570
French Polynesia Tubuai (Austral) Islands	Tubuai (Austral) Islands	native	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 342)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	uncertain if native	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (pp. 217-218) Vouchers cited: MacGregor 519, Thompson 12
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum per Fosberg.
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1576-1577)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1576-1577)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1576-1577)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1576-1577)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	probably native	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 1576-1577)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands		Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95) Presence not verified.
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kili (Kõle) Atoll		Vander Velde, Nancy (year unknown)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 61) Voucher cited: Le Rat 86
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	native	Sykes, W. R. (1977) (p. 174) Paspalum orbiculare
New Zealand (offshore islands) Kermadec Islands	Raoul Island	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 568) "On thermally heated ground near active fumaroles in Denham Bay, partly shaded tracks, dry forest clearings and open ridges".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 249) Voucher cited: CHR 168804
Niue Niue	Niue Island	native invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	native invasive	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 56)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 22) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9621 (BISH), Yuncker 10165 (BISH) "Weed in taro plantations and waste areas".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. Voucher specimen submitted for determination.) Specimen collected: BMW 7080 (BISH, CHR, BRI)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare, Paspalum cartilagineum
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1982) (p. 83) Paspalum orbiculare var. otobedii Fosberg & Sachet; voucher cited: Otobed PW-10090 (US, holotype)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
Palau Palau (main island group)	Ngerkebesang Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
Palau Palau (main island group)	Peleliu Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum orbiculare
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 23) Paspalum orbiculare; Vouchers cited: Fosberg & B. Christian 11222, Fosberg & R. Clark 11271
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 97) Paspalum cartilagineum Presl., Paspalum orbiculare Forst.
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Vouchers cited: Yuncker 15932, Soakai 646, Hotta 4874 (cf. 4875)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Kao Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Voucher cited: Yuncker 15924
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Kao Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 58) Paspalum cartilagineum Presl. Voucher cited: Yuncker 15924
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Nomuka Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 58) Paspalum cartilagineum Presl. Voucher cited: Yuncker 15932
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 58) Paspalum cartilagineum Presl. "Frequent throughout Tonga"
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Vouchers cited: Parks 16270!, Parks 16396!, Hurlimann 196, Yuncker 15452, Soakai 100 (EI), Sykes 328a, Sykes 899, Whistler 7221, Whistler 7411, Whistler 7476
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 58) Paspalum cartilagineum Presl. Voucher cited: Yuncker 15452; Paspalum orbiculare Forster f. Voucher cited: Hüurlimann 196
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Vouchers cited: Cook (n.s.), Hotta 4092!, Hotta 4095, Hotta 4502, Soakai 625, Soakai 701
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 58) Paspalum cartilagineum Presl.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Late Island	native	Sykes, W. R. (1981) (p. 352) Paspalum orbiculare.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Late Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Voucher cited: Buelow & Sykes 646
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuafo‘ou Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Voucher cited: Whistler 6368
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Tafahi Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Voucher cited: Whistler 6288
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	native	Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 101) Paspalum orbiculare. Vouchers cited: Crosby 191, Yuncker 16063
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 58) Paspalum cartilagineum Presl. Voucher cited: Yuncker 16063
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 60)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Palmyra Atoll	Palmyra Atoll	introduced invasive	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 17) Paspalum orbiculare
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Wake Islands	Wake Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 53) Paspalum cartilagineum
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 95)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 55)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 107) Paspalum orbiculare "Potential invader". Grasslands and wetlands.

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 268-269)
South Korea South Korea	South Korea (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (pp. 268-269)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Negara Brunei Darussalam Brunei	Brunei (Negara Brunei Darussalam)	probably native	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 67, 78)
New Zealand New Zealand	New Zealand (country)	introduced invasive	Edgar, E./Connor, H. (2000) (p. 568) "On clay soil, open Leptospermum scrubland, dry banks and waste ground; also on damp ground, particularly seepages".
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	probably native	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 67, 78)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
La Réunion (France) La Réunion Island	La Réunion Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2007)

Comments:  There is a question as to whether or not this species is indigenous to the Pacific. It may be an early introduction.

Additional information:  Additional online information about Paspalum scrobiculatum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Taxonomic information about Paspalum scrobiculatum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Edgar, E./Connor, H. 2000. Flora of New Zealand, vol. V: Gramineae. Manaaki Whenua Press. .

Fosberg, F. R./Evans, M. 1969. A collection of plants from Fais, Caroline Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 133. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 15 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1982. Micronesian Poaceae: Critical and distributional notes. Micronesica 18(2):45-102.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar. 1980. Grass weeds, vol. 1. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 142 pp. + plates.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2005. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 23 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2007. Cook Islands biodiversity and natural heritage. On-line database.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Ohba, T. 1994. Flora and vegetation of the northern Mariana Islands, Micronesia. Biological Expedition to the Northern Mariana Islands, Micronesia. In A. Asakua & T. Furuki, eds.  Natural History Research, Special issue no. 1, Chiba, Japan: Natural History Museum and Institute. pp. 13-69.

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

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