Ocimum basilicum L., Lamiaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Common name(s): [more details]

Chamorro: atbahakat

Chinese: luo le

English: basil, common basil, mint, sweet basil

Fijian: tomole

French: basalic, basilic commun

Hawaiian: kī ‘a‘ala, kī paoa

Hindi: tulsi

I-Kiribati: te marou, te miri

Mangarevan: tamore miri

Maori (Cook Islands): mili, miri, miri kura, miri kura, mori

Nauruan: dementsi

Niuean: momili, momili elo, momili manogi

Palauan: rur a ked

Pukapukan: mili

Samoan: lā‘au sauga, lā‘au sauga, sauga, sauga

Spanish: albaca, albahaca

Tahitian: miri, miri Tahiti

Tongan: akau pāpālangi, sanga, ta‘eta‘e

Tongarevan (spoken): mili

Tuvaluan: mili

Habit:  herb

Description:  "Annual or short-lived perennial herbs; stems 5-10 dm long, many-branched, sparsely to densely villous, especially when young.  Leaves ovate to elliptic-ovate, 3-6 (-11) cm long, 1.3-3 (-5) cm wide, both surfaces copiously dotted with sessile oil glands, upper surface puberulent, lower surface strigose on veins, margins subentire to remotely crenulate, apex acute, base cuneate, petioles 1-2 cm long.  Calyx 2-5 mm long, enlarging up to 9 mm long in fruit, tube ca. 3 mm long, dotted with oil glands, sparsely short-hirsute, sometimes also very sparsely long-hirsute, densely hirsute within at base, lower teeth as long as  or slightly longer than the upper tooth, mouth of fruiting calyx open; corolla white, sometimes tinged pink, 7-10 mm long.  Nutlets ellipsoid, 1.5-3.5 mm long, pitted, mucilaginous when wet"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 808).

Habitat/ecology:  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in low elevation, dry, disturbed habitats, 15-400 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 808).  In Fiji, "cultivated in villages and gardens up to an elevation of about 250 m and it is also a naturalized weed of roadsides and waste places"  (Smith, 1991; p. 229). In New Caledonia, "cultivé comme aromate en formes assez variables; parfois spontané en terrains vagues" (MacKee, 1994; p. 69).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  Pantropical, widely cultivated and naturalized.

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	uncertain if native invasive cultivated	Setchell, William Albert (1924) (p. 54)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 242)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Agrigan (Agrihan) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. (1975) (p. 39) Voucher cited: Fosberg 31558 (US, BISH)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Manihiki Atoll	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Nassau Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Penrhyn (Tongareva) Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Pukapuka Atoll	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Rakahanga Atoll	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	‘Atiu Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Palmerston (Avarau) Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Rarotonga Island	cultivated	McCormack, Gerald (2011)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. basilicum
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. basilicum
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Isabela Group	Volcán Sierra Negra, Isabela Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. basilicum
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. basilicum
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced cultivated	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008) var. basilicum and var. pilosum
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 242)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced cultivated	Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy (2010) (p. 18)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced cultivated	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 101)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 242)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 242)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 229) Vouchers cited: Harvey, Nov. 1855; Seemann 358
Fiji Fiji Islands	Matuku Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 229) Voucher cited: Modeley, July 1874
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ovalau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 229) Voucher cited: Smith 7482
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 229) Voucher cited: Greenwood 480
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 229) Vouchers cited: DA 9746, DA 9753, DA 10290, DA 12141, DA 16951
Fiji Fiji Islands	Wakaya Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Smith, Albert C. (1991) (p. 229) Voucher cited: Milne 380
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Gambier Islands	Mangareva (Gambier) Island	introduced cultivated	St. John, Harold (1988) (p. 23) Voucher cited: Fosberg 11059 (BISH)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Eiao Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Eiao Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Vouchers cited: J.-C. Thibault 1011 (PAP), J.-C. Thibault 1063 (PAP), J. Florence & M. Teikiteetini 9331 (PAP), S.P. Perlman & J. Florence 10044 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Eiao Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1988) (voucher ID: PTBG 9226) Taxon name on voucher: Ocimum basilicum
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2003) (voucher ID: PTBG 39833) Taxon name on voucher: Ocimum basilicum
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 41420) Taxon name on voucher: Ocimum basilicum
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Tahuata (Tuhuata) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Huka (Huahuna, Uahuka) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 129-130)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Huahine Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: D. Baré 76 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 129-130) Voucher cited: BRY 25431
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced cultivated	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 60) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64928 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 129-130)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Mopelia (Mapetia, Maupiha‘a, Maupihoa, Mopiha‘a) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Sachet, M.-H. (1983) (p. 33) Voucher cited: Sachet 989 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 129-130) Vouchers cited: Moore 109, BRY 26081
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 129-130)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (pp. 129-130)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Voucher cited: J. Florence 4705 (PAP) Cultivée, se naturalise.
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Makatea (Ma‘atea) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Niau Atoll	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) "Plantée plutôt comme ornementale, tend à se naturaliser". Voucher cited: J. Florence 10190 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Raro‘ia Atoll		Doty, Maxwell S. (1954) (p. 31)
French Polynesia Tuamotu Archipelago	Raro‘ia Atoll	introduced cultivated	Meyer, Jean-Yves/Fourdrigniez, Marie (2008) (p. 14)
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Raivavae (Raevavae) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) "Plutôt traitée comme ornementale, tend à se maintenir en formation rudérale et fare abandonnés". Voucher cited: J. Florence & W.R. Sykes 11177 (PAP) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rimatara (Rimitara) Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Rurutu Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
French Polynesia Austral (Tubuai) Islands	Tubuai Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 513) Voucher cited: G.E.S. 98
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 242)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 808-809)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Frohlich, Danielle/Lau, Alex (2012) (p. 40) Voucher cited: OED 2010033104 (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Oppenheimer, Hank (2010) (p. 36) Voucher cited: Oppenheimer & Perlman H50611 (BISH, PTBG)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 808-809)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 808-809)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 808-809) Voucher cited: Stokes s.n. (BISH)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive cultivated	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 808-809)
Kiribati Line Islands	Tabuaeran (Fanning) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Wester, Lyndon (1985) (p. 30)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Abemama Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 76) Voucher: Imada 2003-141 (BISH 697753)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Marakei Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 28)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Nikunau Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 28)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Nonouti Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 28)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Imada, Clyde T. (2004) (p. 74)
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 28)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 242)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 101)
Marshall Islands Ratak Chain	Majuro (Mãjro) Atoll	introduced cultivated	Vander Velde, Nancy (2003) (p. 101)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 242)
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced cultivated	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (pp. 157-158) Vouchers cited: Thaman & Manner 141 (SUVA), Thaman & Manner 22305 (SUVA)
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Lifou	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 69) Vouchers cited: Thiébaut s.n., Vieillard s.n., MacKee 27298, MacKee 28337
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 69) Vouchers cited: MacKee 23926, MacKee 24367, MacKee 31960, MacKee 31961
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 104) Vouchers cited: CHR 169920, CHR 169921, CHR 169922
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 104) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9980 (BISH), Yuncker 10022 (BISH), Yuncker 10049 (BISH), Yuncker 10176 (BISH)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced cultivated	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 44)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Palau Islands (main island group)		Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim (2010) (p. 31)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago		Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 490) Common everywhere, in the gardens of the natives.
Papua New Guinea Bougainville Islands	Bougainville Island		Foreman, D. B. (1971) (p. 43)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (pp. 421-422) In the settled areas at low and medium altitudes, sometimes planted; often spontaneous in open waste places.
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced	St. John, H. (1987) (p. 49) Vouchers cited: Ross 52, Fosberg & R. Clark 11288
Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Islands	Pitcairn Island	introduced invasive	Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. (2011) Naturalisée
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	introduced invasive cultivated	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 95)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 235) Cited: Lister.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 38) Voucher cited: Moseley s.n.
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 235) Cited: Home.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (p. 235) Cited: Crosby.
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced	Burkill, I. H. (1900) (p. 50)
Tuvalu Tuvalu (Ellis) Islands	Tuvalu Islands		Unknown (year unknown)
United States (other Pacific offshore islands) Midway Atoll	Sand Island	introduced cultivated	Starr, Forest/Starr, Kim/Loope, Lloyd (2008) (pp. B-11)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	introduced invasive	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native invasive cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Mostly cultivated as an aromatic herb, sometimes wild.
China China	Hong Kong	native	Wu, Te-lin (2001) (p. 237) In wasteland, near village.
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 251)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	uncertain if introduced invasive	Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. (2009) (p. 64) Weed of uncertain origin
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	native invasive cultivated	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) Mostly cultivated as an aromatic herb, sometimes wild.

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced cultivated	Swarbrick, J. T. (1997) (p. 121)
Maldives Maldive Islands	Malè Atoll		Fosberg, F. R. (1957) (p. 33)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Coetivy Island		Robertson, S. A./Fosberg, F. R. (1983) (p. 150)
Seychelles Seychelles Islands	Frégate Island		Robertson, S. A./Todd, D. M. (1983) (p. 53)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Ocimum basilicum is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Ocimum basilicum as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Ocimum basilicum may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Burkill, I. H. 1900. The flora of Vavau, one of the Tonga Islands, with a short account of its vegetation by Charles Steele Crosby. Lin. Jour. Bot. 35:20-65.

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Chong, Kwek Yan/Tan, Hugh T. W./Corlett, Richard T. 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Doty, Maxwell S. 1954. Floristic and Ecological Notes on Raroia Atoll, Tuamotus. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 33. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 41 pp.

Falanruw, Marjorie C./Maka, Jean E./Cole, Thomas G./Whitesell, Craig D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Pac. SW Forest and Range Expt. Stn. Resource Bulletin PSW-67. 91 pp.

Florence, J./Chevillotte, H./Ollier, C./Meyer, J.-Y. 2011. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP). (online resource).

Foreman, D. B. 1971. A check list of the vascular plants of Bougainville, with descriptions of some common forest trees. Botany Bulletin No. 5. Division of Botany, Department of Forests. Lae, New Guinea. 194 pp.

Fosberg, F. R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 58. Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington. 37 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Falanruw, M. V. C./Sachet, M.-H. 1975. Vascular flora of the northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22:1-45.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of the Gilbert Islands, Kiribati, checklist. Atoll Res. Bull. 295:1-33.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Frohlich, Danielle/Lau, Alex. 2012. New plant records for the Hawaiian Islands 2010-2011. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2011. Part II: Plants. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 113:27-54.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Tim. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Palau. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 44 pp.

Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy. 2010. Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. Unpublished checklist. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 26 pp.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2011. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 3 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 628 pp.

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